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Type: Prelims Only

  • Himachal witnesses gradual snowfall pattern shift  

    Why in the News?

    • Himachal Pradesh is experiencing a reducing snow cover over the years.
      • There is a noticeable shift in snowfall occurrence from winter months towards early summer months.

    Findings from the Latest Study:

    • The study by the Centre on Climate Change of Himachal Pradesh Council for Science Technology-Environment (HIMCOSTE) shows an overall decrease of 12.72% in snow cover area in 2023-24 compared to 2022-23.
    • The study used Advanced Wide Field Sensor (AWiFS) satellite data to analyze snow cover trends.
    • Early winter months (October-November) showed a decrease in snow cover area except for the Ravi basin, which showed a marginal increase in October.
    • Peak winter months (December-January) saw a negative trend in snow cover area.
    • Late winter months (February-March) showed a positive trend with an increase in snow cover area in all basins compared to the previous year.
    • Snow cover area increased in April due to fresh snowfall in the early summer period.

    Impact on Water Availability

    • The decrease in snow cover during peak winter months (December and January) is especially alarming.
    • Snowfall during these months sustains longer and enhances the discharge dependability of major river basins during summer.
    • Reduced snow cover in winter could affect water availability during the summer months.

    Concerns and Implications

    • Environmentalists and scientists are concerned about the shifting snowfall patterns.
    • Depleting snow cover and changing snowfall patterns have significant impacts on hydro-power, water sources, people, livestock, forests, farms, and infrastructure.

    Back2Basics: Rivers of Himachal Pradesh   

    Description
    Satluj
    • Originating from Rakas Lake in Tibet, the Satluj River is the longest river in Himachal Pradesh.
    • It flows through the districts of Kinnaur, Shimla, Kullu, Mandi, Solan, and Bilaspur, and enters Punjab near Nangal.
    • The river is crucial for hydropower generation and irrigation.
    • Hydropower Dams: Bhakra Dam (Bhakra-Nangal Project), Nathpa Jhakri Dam, Karcham Wangtoo Dam.
    • Glaciers Feeding: Rakas Lake (Tibet), Zema Glacier, Shipki La Glacier.
    Beas
    • The Beas River originates from Beas Kund near Rohtang Pass.
    • It flows through the districts of Kullu, Mandi, Hamirpur, and Kangra, eventually entering Punjab.
    • It is known for its picturesque valleys and is significant for agriculture and hydropower.
    • Hydropower Dams: Pandoh Dam, Pong Dam (Maharana Pratap Sagar).
    • Glaciers Feeding: Beas Kund Glacier.
    Ravi
    • Originating from the Bara Bhangal Glacier in the Himalayas, the Ravi River flows through the Chamba district of Himachal Pradesh.
    • It eventually enters Pakistan. The river is crucial for both hydropower and irrigation in the region.
    • Hydropower Dams: Chamera Dam (Chamera I, II, and III).
    • Glaciers Feeding: Bara Bhangal Glacier.
    Chenab
    • The Chenab River, formed by the confluence of the Chandra and Bhaga rivers, originates from the Bara Lacha Pass in Lahaul-Spiti.
    • It flows through the districts of Lahaul and Chamba before entering Jammu and Kashmir.
    • It is one of the largest rivers in terms of discharge and is vital for hydropower.
    • Hydropower Dams: No major dams within Himachal Pradesh, but significant potential for hydropower.
    • Glaciers Feeding: Bara Shigri Glacier, Miyar Glacier.
    Yamuna
    • The Yamuna River originates from the Yamunotri Glacier in the Garhwal Himalayas.
    • It forms the eastern boundary of Himachal Pradesh with Uttarakhand.
    • It is one of the most sacred rivers in India and supports major irrigation systems downstream.
    • Hydropower Dams: No significant major hydropower projects within Himachal Pradesh (major dams located downstream in Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh).
    • Glaciers Feeding: Yamunotri Glacier.
    Spiti
    • The Spiti River originates from the Kunzum Range and flows through the cold desert region of Spiti Valley in Himachal Pradesh.
    • It joins the Satluj River near Khab. The river is known for its stunning landscapes and unique ecosystem.
    • Hydropower Dams: No significant major hydropower projects (projects primarily focused on other rivers in the region).
    • Glaciers Feeding: Kunzum Range Glaciers.
    Parbati
    • The Parbati River originates from the Parbati Glacier in the Kullu district.
    • It is a tributary of the Beas River.
    • The river is significant for its hydropower potential and scenic beauty, attracting many trekkers and nature enthusiasts.
    • Hydropower Dams: Parbati Hydroelectric Project.
    • Glaciers Feeding: Parbati Glacier.

  • President appoints six new Governors  

    Why in the News?

    President Droupadi Murmu has appointed six new Governors and reshuffled three others.

    New appointments:

    Name New Position
    Om Mathur Governor of Sikkim
    K. Kailashnathan Lieutenant Governor of Puducherry
    Santosh Kumar Gangwar Governor of Jharkhand
    Jishnu Dev Varma Governor of Telangana
    Ramen Deka Governor of Chhattisgarh
    C.H. Vijayashankar Governor of Meghalaya
    Haribhau Kisanrao Bagde Governor of Rajasthan

    About the Office of Governor and his/her Appointment

    Details
    Role
    • Constitutional head of a state, similar to the President at the central level.
    • Exists in states, while lieutenant governors and administrators are in union territories.
    • Independent constitutional office, not subordinate to Central government.
    Articles Articles 153 to 167 in Part VI of the Constitution deal with the state executive
    Part of State Executive Consists of the Governor, Chief Minister, Council of Ministers, and Advocate General
    Borrowed Office
    • From the Government of India Act of 1935.
    • Canadian model adopted: Governor appointed by President by warrant under his hand and seal.
    Dual Role
    • Chief executive Head of the States (nominal).
    • Agent of the central government.
    Qualifications
    • Constitutional: Citizen of India, 35+ years old.
    • Conventional: Outsider to the state, President consults the Chief Minister.
    Oath
    • Administered by the Chief Justice of the state High Court (or senior-most judge available)
    • Swears to execute office faithfully, preserve the Constitution, and serve the people
    Term of Office
    • No fixed term, holds office for 5 years subject to President’s pleasure
    • Eligible for reappointment.
    • Can be transferred or hold office beyond term until successor assumes charge
    Removal
    • Can resign by addressing the President
    • Can be removed by the President at any time without specified grounds
    • Chief Justice of state high court may temporarily discharge functions in contingencies
    Additional Functions
    • Acts on advice of Chief Minister and Council of Ministers
    • Holds executive power, legislative power (to some extent), and discretionary power
    • Functions as Chancellor of state universities, where applicable
    Reforms  stipulated by Sarkaria Commission (1988)
    • Governor should be appointed by the President after consulting the Chief Minister.
    • Should be a person of eminence, not belonging to the state.
    • Should not be removed before term completion except in rare circumstances.
    • Act as a bridge between the center and state.
    • Exercise discretionary powers judiciously.

     

    PYQ:

    [2013] Which one of the following statements is correct?

    (a) In India, the same person cannot be appointed as Governor for two or more States at the same time

    (b) The Judges of the High Court in India are appointed by the Governor of the State just as the Judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President

    (c) No procedure has been laid down in the Constitution of India for the removal of a Governor from his/her post

    (d) In the case of a Union Territory having a legislative setup, the Chief Minister is appointed by the Lt. Governor on the basis of majority support.

  • What is Indexation in calculating LTCG tax?

    Why in the News?

    The withdrawal of the indexation benefit from the long-term capital gains (LTCG) tax regime has emerged as a contentious decision in the Union Budget for 2024-25.

    What is Indexation?

    • Indexation is a method used to adjust the purchase price of an asset to account for inflation over the period it was held.
    • This reduces the taxable capital gain, as it reflects the increase in the asset’s value due to inflation.
    • Purpose: To ensure that the taxpayers are taxed only on the real gains and not on the inflationary increase in the value of the asset.

    Changes in the LTCG Regime

    • The new LTCG regime removes the indexation benefit for property, gold, and other unlisted assets.
    • The LTCG tax rate is reduced from 20% to 12.5%.
    • For assets purchased before 2001, the fair market value as of April 1, 2001, is considered the cost of acquisition.

    Implications of the Changes

    • The government claims the changes simplify the capital gains tax structure without causing a loss to most taxpayers.
    • The uniform tax rate for various asset classes is intended to benefit both taxpayers and tax authorities.

    Concerns for Taxpayers

    • There was significant concern, particularly in the residential real estate sector, about increased LTCG tax liabilities.
    • The government clarified that the new regime would be beneficial in most cases, as real estate returns typically outpace inflation.
    • The Income Tax Department explained that:
    1. For properties held for 5 years, the new regime is beneficial if the value has appreciated 1.7 times or more, and
    2. For 10 years, if the value has increased to 2.4 times or more.

    Back2Basics: Capital Gains Tax Overview

    Details
    Definition Tax on profit from the sale of a capital asset.
    Launch Introduced in 1956, as part of the Income Tax Act, 1961.
    Types Short-Term Capital Gains (STCG): Held for ≤36 months (≤12 months for specified assets).

    Long-Term Capital Gains (LTCG): Held for >36 months (>12 months for specified assets).
    Tax Rates (STCG) With STT: 15%

    Without STT: Applicable income tax slab rates.
    Tax Rates (LTCG) Listed Equity Shares & Equity-Oriented Funds: 10% on gains >₹1 lakh without indexation.

    Other Assets: 20% with indexation (proposed 12.5% without indexation from FY 24-25).
    Indexation Adjusts purchase price for inflation using Cost Inflation Index (CII).
    Purpose of Indexation To tax only the real gains, accounting for inflation.
    Formula (Indexation) Indexed Cost of Acquisition: (Cost of Acquisition × CII of sale year) / CII of purchase year

    Indexed Cost of Improvement: (Cost of Improvement × CII of sale year) / CII of improvement year

     

    PYQ:

    [2012] Under which of the following circumstances may ‘capital gains’ arise?

    1. When there is an increase in the sales of a product

    2. When there is a natural increase in the value of the property owned

    3. When you purchase a painting and there is a growth in its value due to increase in its popularity

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 2 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • High Court Judges’ Appointment under process: Centre

    Why in the News?

    The Union government has said that 219 proposals for the appointment of High Court judges by the Collegium are in various stages of processing.

    What is Collegium System?

    • The collegium system is the method used for the appointment and transfer of judges in the Supreme Court and High Courts of India.
    •  It is the Indian Supreme Court’s invention.
    • The term ‘Collegium’ does not find mention in the Constitution.
    • Constitutional Provisions:
      • Article 124: The President appoints the Chief Justice and other judges of the Supreme Court after consultations with judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts as deemed necessary.
      • Article 217: The President appoints High Court judges after consultations with the Chief Justice of India, the Governor of the state, and the Chief Justice of the High Court concerned

    Composition:

    1. Supreme Court Collegium:
      • A five-member body.
      • Headed by the Chief Justice of India (CJI).
      • Includes the four other senior most judges of the Supreme Court at that time.
    2. High Court Collegium:
      • Led by the Chief Justice of the respective High Court.
      • Includes the two senior most judges of that High Court.
      • Recommendations for appointments by a High Court collegium are sent to the government only after approval by the CJI and the Supreme Court collegium.

    Evolution: Three Judges Cases

    • First Judges Case (1981) ruled that the “consultation” with the CJI in the matter of appointments must be full and effective.
      • The Supreme Court, in a majority decision, held that the opinion of the Chief Justice of India is not binding on the executive in the matter of appointments and transfers of judges. The court ruled that the executive has primacy in judicial appointments.
    • Second Judges Case (1993) introduced the Collegium system, holding that “consultation” really meant “concurrence”.
      • The Supreme Court, by a majority of 7:2, overruled the First Judges Case and held that the CJI’s opinion regarding judicial appointments and transfers should be given primacy.
      • The court established that the CJI should consult with the two senior-most judges of the Supreme Court before making recommendations for appointments and transfers, thereby creating a collegium system.
    • Third Judges Case (1998): On a Presidential Reference for its opinion, the Supreme Court, in the Third Judges Case (1998) expanded the Collegium to a five-member body, comprising the CJI and four of his senior-most colleagues.

    The procedure followed by the Collegium:

    Appointment of CJI

    • The President of India appoints the CJI and the other SC judges.
    • As far as the CJI is concerned, the outgoing CJI recommends his successor.
    • In practice, it has been strictly by seniority ever since the supersession controversy of the 1970s.
    • The Union Law Minister forwards the recommendation to the PM who, in turn, advises the President.

    Other SC Judges:

    • For other judges of the top court, the proposal is initiated by the CJI.
    • The CJI consults the rest of the Collegium members, as well as the senior-most judge of the court hailing from the High Court to which the recommended person belongs.
    • The consultees must record their opinions in writing and it should form part of the file.
    • The Collegium sends the recommendation to the Law Minister, who forwards it to the Prime Minister to advise the President.

    For High Courts:

    • The CJs of High Courts are appointed as per the policy of having Chief Justices from outside the respective States. The Collegium takes the call on the elevation.
    • High Court judges are recommended by a Collegium comprising the CJI and two senior-most judges.
    • The proposal, however, is initiated by the Chief Justice of the High Court concerned in consultation with two senior-most colleagues.
    • The recommendation is sent to the Chief Minister, who advises the Governor to send the proposal to the Union Law Minister.

    Qualifications for Appointment as a Supreme Court Judge:

    According to Article 124(3) of the Constitution, a person can be appointed as a judge of the Supreme Court if he or she:

    • Is a citizen of India.
    • Has served as a judge of a High Court for at least five years or in two such courts in succession.
    • Alternatively, has been an advocate of a High Court for at least ten years or in two or more such courts in succession.
    • Is a distinguished jurist in the opinion of the President.

    Qualifications for Appointment as a High Court Judge:

    • The person must have held a judicial office for at least 10 years in India, or
    • Must have been a practising advocate in a High Court for at least 10 years.
    • The person must be enrolled under the Bar Council of India.

    PYQ:

    [2012] What is the provision to safeguard the autonomy of the Supreme Court of India?

    1. While appointing the Supreme Court Judges, the President of India has to consult the Chief Justice of India.
    2. The Supreme Court Judges can be removed by the Chief Justice of India only.
    3. The salaries of the Judges are charged on the Consolidated Fund of India to which the legislature does not have to vote.
    4. All appointments of officers and staffs of the Supreme Court of India are made by the Government only after consulting the Chief Justice of India.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 and 3 only

    (b) 3 and 4 only

    (c) 4 only

    (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

  • Assam’s Charaideo Moidam included in UNESCO World Heritage List

    Why in the News?

    The Charaideo Moidams, a unique 700-year-old mound-burial system of the Ahom dynasty from Assam, has been added to the UNESCO World Heritage List.

    About Charaideo Moidams

    • The Charaideo moidams represents the late medieval (13th-19th century CE) mound burial tradition of the Tai Ahom community in Assam.
      • Charaideo, more than 400 km east of Guwahati, was the first capital of the Ahom dynasty founded by Chao Lung Sukaphaa in 1253.
    • The Ahoms preferred to place the deceased family members at Charaideo where the first king Sukapha was laid to rest.
    • The historical chronicles inform that wives, attendants, pet animals and huge quantity of valuables were buried with the departed kings.
    • After 18th century, the Ahom rulers adopted the Hindu method of cremation and began entombing the cremated bones and ashes in a Maidam at Charaideo.
    • Out of 386 Maidams explored so far, 90 royal burials at Charaideo are the best preserved, representative of and the most complete examples of mound burial tradition of the Ahoms.

    Architecture details:

    • Architecturally it comprises a massive underground vault with one or more chambers having domical superstructure.
    • It is covered by a heap of earthen mound and externally it appears a hemispherical mound.
    • At the top of the mound, a small open pavilion chow-chali is provided.
    • An octagonal dwarf wall encloses whole maidam.

    Significance of this addition:

    • Moidams has become the 43rd property from India to be included in the UNESCO List.
    • India now stands at the 6th position globally for the most number of World Heritage Properties.
    • The Moidams are the first site from the North East to be recognized as a World Heritage Site in the cultural category.
    • Assam has 2 other World Heritage Sites in the natural category: Kaziranga National Park and Manas National Park, both upgraded to tiger reserves.

    Who were the Ahoms?

    • The Ahom, also known as the Tai-Ahom, are an ethnic group from Assam and Arunachal Pradesh in India.
    • This ethnic group is made up of interbred descendants of the Tai people, who first came to Assam’s Brahmaputra valley in 1228, and indigenous people who later joined them.
    • The current Ahom people and culture are a mix of the ancient Tai people and culture, as well as indigenous Tibeto-Burman people and cultures that they assimilated in Assam.
    • Sukaphaa, the Tai group’s leader, and his 9000 supporters founded the Ahom empire (1228–1826 CE), which ruled over part of modern-day Assam’s Brahmaputra Valley until 1826.
    • It retained sovereignty for 600 years until annexed by British India in 1826 (Treaty of Yandaboo).
    • Lachit Borphukan (1622-1672) is the most celebrated ruler of Ahom Dynasty.

    Back2Basics: UNESCO World Heritage Sites 

    Aspect

    Details
    Definition Sites of outstanding cultural or natural value to humanity, are protected under the UNESCO Convention of 1972.
    Classification
    1. Cultural Heritage Sites: Historic buildings, archaeological sites, monumental sculptures/paintings.
    2. Natural Heritage Sites: Unique geologic processes, rare phenomena, habitats for endangered species.
    3. Mixed Heritage Sites: Both natural and cultural significance.
    Benefits
    • Raises awareness for conservation
    • Provides technical assistance and training
    • Encourages local participation
    • Boosts tourism
    • Offers financial aid and expert advice for preservation
    Criteria for Declaration Cultural Criteria:

    • Human creative genius
    • Interchange of human values
    • Testimony to cultural tradition
    • Significant stage in human history
    • Traditional human settlement
    • Associated with significant events/traditions

    Natural Criteria:

    • Natural beauty and aesthetic importance
    • Earth’s history and geological processes
    • Ecological and biological processes
    • Biodiversity and conservation

     

    PYQ:

    [2021] Which one of the following statements is correct?

    (a) Ajanta Caves lie in the gorge of Waghora river.

    (b) Sanchi Stupa lies in the gorge of Chambal river.

    (c) Pandu-lena Cave Shrines lie in the gorge of Narmada river.

    (d) Amaravati Stupa lies in the gorge of Godavari river.

  • NASA’s Cassini-Huygens Mission

    Why in the News?

    • US space agency NASA’s Cassini-Huygens spacecraft launched in October 1997.
      • Using Cassini’s radar data, scientists from Cornell University have discovered new information about the liquid ocean on Titan, Saturn’s largest moon.

    Observations made about Titan

    • Titan is composed of hydrocarbons – organic chemicals consisting of carbon and hydrogen.
    • The astronomers have reportedly located calm seas of methane with a slow tidal current.

    About Cassini-Huygens Mission

    • The Cassini-Huygens mission was a collaborative project between NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Italian Space Agency (ASI) to explore Saturn and its moons.
    • The spacecraft was named after astronomers Giovanni Cassini and Christian Huygens.
    • The mission consisted of the Cassini orbiter and the Huygens probe.
    • It was launched on October 15, 1997.
    • It ended its mission on September 15, 2017 by plunging into Saturn’s atmosphere.

    Key Achievements:

    • Saturn Exploration:
      • Detailed study of Saturn’s atmosphere, rings, and magnetosphere.
      • Discovered new rings and observed the complex structure of the existing ones.
    • Moons of Saturn:
      • Titan Exploration: Huygens probe successfully landed on Titan, Saturn’s largest moon, on January 14, 2005, providing the first direct exploration of Titan’s surface and atmosphere.
      • Enceladus Discoveries: Found water-ice plumes erupting from Enceladus, indicating a subsurface ocean that could potentially harbor life.
    • Other Moons: Provided detailed images and data on other moons like Lapetus, Rhea, Dione, and Tethys.
    • Technological Milestones:
      • Demonstrated the success of long-duration missions in deep space.
      • Advanced the understanding of spacecraft navigation and operation in complex planetary environments.

    PYQ:

    [2014] Which of the following pairs is/are correctly matched?

    Spacecraft Purpose
    1. Cassini-Huygens Orbiting the Venus and transmitting data to the Earth
    2. Messenger Mapping and investigating the Mercury
    3. Voyager 1 and 2 Exploring the outer solar system

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 only
    (b) 2 and 3 only
    (c) 1 and 3 only
    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • What is the Hema Commission Report?

    Why in the News?

    • A single bench of the Kerala High Court has stayed the release of the Justice Hema Commission report.
      • The report investigated women’s working conditions in the Malayalam film industry.

    About the Assault that Exposed the Deep Gender Divide      

    • On February 17, 2017, a leading Malayalam film actress was abducted and sexually assaulted in her car while traveling from Thrissur to Kochi.
    • The incident caused shock and outrage across Kerala as disturbing details emerged, including a video purportedly intended for blackmail.
    • Six of the ten accused were arrested quickly, and popular actor Dileep was named an accused and remanded to judicial custody in July. He is currently out on bail, with the trial ongoing since 2020.

    Formation of the Women in Cinema Collective (WCC)

    • The incident highlighted the discriminatory treatment faced by women in the film industry.
    • The Women in Cinema Collective (WCC) was formed in response, submitting a petition to the Chief Minister demanding an inquiry into gender issues in the industry.

    The Hema Commission

    • In July 2017, five months after the incident, the state government formed a 3-member committee headed by retired Kerala High Court judge, Justice K Hema.
    • The committee’s objective was to investigate issues of sexual harassment and gender inequality in the Malayalam film industry.
    • In December 2019, a 300-page report was submitted to the CM Pinarayi Vijayan, including documents, audio, and video evidence.

    Findings and Recommendations

    • The commission consulted multiple women professionals in the industry, recording detailed accounts of sexual harassment, wages earned, and possible blacklisting.
    • The report highlighted the existence of a casting couch, and the presence of alcohol and drugs on film sets.
    • The commission recommended forming a tribunal to investigate these allegations.
    • Other recommendations included making job contracts mandatory, ensuring wage parity across genders for the same job, banning drugs and liquor on shooting locations, and ensuring safe working conditions for women.

    PYQ:

    [2010] Two of the schemes launched by the Government of India for Women’s development are Swadhar and Swayam Siddha. As regards the difference between them, consider the following statements:

    1. Swayam Siddha is meant for those in difficult circumstances such as women survivors of natural disasters or terrorism, women prisoners released from jails, mentally challenged women etc., whereas Swadhar is meant for holistic empowerment of women through Self Help Groups.
    2. Swayam Siddha is implemented through Local Self-Government bodies or reputed Voluntary Organizations whereas Swadhar is implemented through the ICDS units set up in the states.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only
    (b) 2 only
    (c) Both 1 and 2
    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

    [2014] We are witnessing increasing instances of sexual violence against women in the country. Despite existing legal provisions against it, the number of such incidences is on the rise. Suggest some innovative measures to tackle this menace.

  • Parliamentary Democracy: A Comparison between Nepal and India

    Why in the News?

    • On July 14, K. P. Sharma Oli was sworn in as Nepal’s Prime Minister for the fourth time, leading a new coalition government.
      • Since the abolition of the monarchy in 2008, Nepal has had 14 governments despite a new constitution in 2015 promising progress.

    Evolution of Nepal’s Constitution

    • 1948: The Government of Nepal Act was the first attempt at creating a constitution.
    • 1951: The Interim Government of Nepal Act aimed to establish democracy but was replaced in 1959.
    • 1959: Introduced a multi-party system, but the Panchayat Constitution of 1962 established a party-less system under King Mahendra.
    • 1990: A constitutional monarchy restored the multi-party system.
    • 2007: An Interim Constitution was adopted after continued political upheavals.
    • 2015: The current constitution established Nepal as a federal democratic republic.

    Comparing the Indian Constitution and Nepal’s Constitution:

    India Nepal
    Historical Background Adopted on November 26, 1949, and came into effect on January 26, 1950.

    Framed by the Constituent Assembly elected in 1946.

    		 Current constitution promulgated on September 20, 2015.

    Many attempts since 1948, 1951, 1959, 1962, 1990, and 2007.
    Form of Government Quasi-federal nature of the Indian constitution is described as a “Union of States” in Article 1. Other factors also talk about the quasi-federal like Emergency power and independent judiciary. etc

    Parliamentary system with the President as the ceremonial head and the Prime Minister as the head of government.

    		 Federal democratic republic.

    Parliamentary system with the President as the ceremonial head and the Prime Minister as the executive head.
    Structure of Government Bicameral legislature: Lok Sabha (House of the People) and Rajya Sabha (Council of States).

    Three levels of government: central, state, and local.

    		 Bicameral legislature: House of Representatives and National Assembly.

    Three levels of government: federal, provincial, and local.
    Federal Structure More centralized federal structure. The central government has significant authority over states.

    Flexible to allow greater central control when necessary.

    		 More decentralized federal structure. Greater autonomy to provinces.

    Includes seven provinces, each with its own government and legislature.
    Elections and Representation First-past-the-post (FPTP) system for Lok Sabha elections. Representation through single-member constituencies and multi-party systems. Mixed electoral system with both FPTP and proportional representation (PR). Ensures broader representation but leads to the proliferation of smaller parties.
    Judiciary The Supreme Court of India is the highest judicial authority.

    Ensures protection of fundamental rights and upholds the rule of law.

    		 The Supreme Court of Nepal is the highest judicial body.

    Interprets the Constitution and protects citizens’ rights. Aims to uphold the rule of law and safeguard fundamental rights.
    Fundamental Rights and Duties Comprehensive list of Fundamental Rights in Part III, including equality, freedom, religion, and constitutional remedies. Fundamental Duties in Part IV-A. Extensive fundamental rights, covering civil, political, and socio-economic rights. Emphasizes affirmative action for marginalized groups.
    Secularism and Religion A secular state with no official religion which mentioned in the Preamble of the Constitution. The secular state was declared in the 2015 Constitution.

    Protects religious freedom and promotes harmony among religious communities.

     

    PYQ:

    [2023] Compare and contrast the British and Indian approaches to Parliamentary sovereignty.

    [2022] Critically examine the procedures through which the Presidents of India and France are elected.

    [2021] Analyze the distinguishing features of the notion of Right to Equality in the Constitutions of the USA and India.

    [2021] Analyse the distinguishing features of the notion of Right to Equality in the Constitutions of the USA and India.

    [2020] The judicial systems in India and the UK seem to be converging as well as diverging in recent times. Highlight the key points of convergence and divergence between the two nations in terms of their judicial practices.

    [2019] What can France learn from the Indian Constitution’s approach to secularism?

    [2018] India and the USA are two large democracies. Examine the basic tenets on which the two political systems are based.

  • ICMR develops CRISPR Cas-based TB Detection Kit

    Why in the News?

    The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) Regional Medical Research Centre for North East has developed the “world’s cheapest CRISPR Cas-based TB testing system”.

    Back2Basics: CRISPR-Cas9 Technology

    • CRISPR-Cas9 stands for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats and CRISPR-associated protein 9.
    • It is a technology that allows geneticists and researchers to edit parts of the genome by altering sections of the DNA sequence.
    • Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna’s work on CRISPR-Cas9 as a ‘molecular scissor’ earned them the 2020 Nobel Prize in chemistry.
    • The system consists of two key components:
    1. Cas9: This is the enzyme that acts like a pair of molecular scissors. It is responsible for cutting the DNA strand at a specific location, allowing for the removal, addition, or alteration of DNA at that site.
    2. Guide RNA (gRNA): This is a piece of RNA that is designed to find and bind to a specific sequence of DNA that matches its code. The gRNA guides the Cas9 enzyme to the exact spot in the genome where an edit is desired.
    • Mechanism:
      • The process begins with the design of a gRNA that matches the DNA sequence where an edit is needed.
      • Once inside the cell, the Cas9 enzyme and the gRNA form a complex that can identify and bind to the target DNA sequence.
      • The Cas9 then cuts the DNA at this location.
      • After the DNA is cut, the cell’s natural repair mechanisms can be harnessed to add or remove genetic material, or to make specific changes to the DNA.
    • Applications: Used for gene editing to correct genetic disorders, develop targeted cancer therapies, enhance diagnostics for infectious diseases, and create personalized medicine approaches.

    About the New TB Detection System

    • The system can detect TB bacteria using DNA from a patient’s saliva at a very low cost.
      • Specific DNA sequences unique to Mycobacterium tuberculosis (the bacteria causing TB) are identified.
    • It can identify the bacteria in preliminary stages and test over 1,500 samples simultaneously within approximately two hours.
    • The technology is simple enough to be used in primary health centres in villages.

    TB Situation in India:

    • TB kills an estimated 480,000 Indians annually, or over 1,400 patients every day.
    • India has more than a million ‘missing’ TB cases each year, which remain undiagnosed or inadequately diagnosed and treated in the private sector.

    National Goals for Elimination of TB: 

    • Pradhan Mantri TB Mukt Bharat Abhiyan (2022): It is stipulated to meet the goal of ending the TB epidemic by 2025 from the country, five years ahead of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) for 2030.
    • Nikshay Poshan Yojana (2018): Launched in 2018, this scheme provides nutritional support to TB patients. Under this scheme, TB patients receive a direct benefit transfer (DBT) of Rs. 500 per month to purchase food.

    PYQ:

    [2019] What is Cas9 Protein that is often mentioned in news?

    (a) A molecular scissors used in targeted gene editing

    (b) A biosensor used in the accurate detection of pathogens in patients

    (c) A gene that makes plants pest-resistant

    (d) A herbicidal substance synthesized in genetically modified crops

    [2014] Can overuse and free availability of antibiotics without Doctor’s prescription, be contributors to the emergence of drug-resistant diseases in India? What are the available mechanisms for monitoring and control? Critically discuss the various issues involved.

  • Typhoon Gaemi 

    Why in the News?

    After making landfall in the Philippines, Typhoon Gaemi is heading towards Taiwan.

    What is a Typhoon?

    • A typhoon is a mature tropical cyclone that forms in the Northwest Pacific Ocean, primarily between 100°E and 180°E.
    • It is characterised by strong winds, and heavy rain, and can cause significant damage due to high wind speeds, storm surges, and flooding.

    Factors causing its formation:

    • It needs sustained ocean temperatures of 26.5°C or higher.
    • High moisture content in the mid-troposphere.
    • Presence of the Coriolis force to initiate rotation.
    • Minimal vertical wind shear to allow for storm growth.
    • Atmospheric instability to promote rising motion and thunderstorm activity.
    • An initial low-pressure area or tropical wave to trigger development.
      • Formation Regions: Northwest Pacific Ocean in areas east of the Philippines, southeast of Japan, and near Taiwan; South China Sea and in Western North Pacific near the Mariana Islands and Guam.
    Note: Typhoons do not form in the South Atlantic Ocean and the southeastern Pacific Ocean because of cooler sea surface temperatures and higher wind shear in those regions.

     

    PYQ:

    [2015] In the South Atlantic and South-Eastern Pacific regions in tropical latitudes, cyclone does not originate. What is the reason?

    (a) Sea surface temperatures are low
    (b) Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone seldom occurs
    (c) Coriolis force is too weak
    (d) Absence of land in those regions