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GS Paper: GS3-16.Achievements of Indians in Science & Technology

  • XPoSat: India’s first Polarimetry Mission

    xposat

    Central Idea

    • The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is partnering with the Raman Research Institute (RRI) in Bengaluru to develop the X-Ray Polarimeter Satellite (XPoSat), set to launch later this year.

    What is XPoSat?

    • XPoSat aims to study various dynamics of bright astronomical X-ray sources in extreme conditions.
    • It is India’s first polarimetry mission and the world’s second, with NASA’s Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer (IXPE) being the other major mission launched in 2021.
    • IXPE carries three state-of-the-art space telescopes to observe polarized X-rays from neutron stars and supermassive black holes, providing insights into the geometry and inner workings of the light source.

    XPoSat Payloads

    • XPoSat will carry two scientific payloads in a low Earth orbit.
    • The primary payload, POLIX, will measure the polarimetry parameters of X-rays, observing approximately 40 bright astronomical sources across different categories during the mission’s planned five-year lifetime.
    • The XSPECT (X-ray Spectroscopy and Timing) payload will provide spectroscopic information on how light is absorbed and emitted by objects, allowing observations of X-ray pulsars, black hole binaries, low-magnetic field neutron stars, and more.

    X-Rays in Space

    • X-rays in space have higher energy and shorter wavelengths, ranging from 0.03 to 3 nanometers.
    • X-rays are emitted by objects with temperatures in the millions of degrees Celsius, such as pulsars, galactic supernova remnants, and black holes.
    • Polarized light, consisting of organized moving electric and magnetic waves, plays a role in X-ray observations, and polarized lenses are used by fishermen to reduce glare from sunlight.

    Significance of Polarimetry

    • Polarimetry involves measuring the angle of rotation of the plane of polarized light as it passes through certain transparent materials.
    • XPoSat’s primary payload, POLIX (Polarimeter Instrument in X-rays), developed by RRI and UR Rao Satellite Centre, will measure the degree and angle of polarization in X-rays from astronomical sources.
    • The emission mechanisms of various astronomical sources are complex, and understanding them poses challenges that polarimetry can help address.

     

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  • MoD signs 250th contract under ‘Innovations for Defence Excellence’

    Central Idea

    • Innovations for Defence Excellence (IDEX), the flagship initiative of the Ministry of Defence (MoD), has achieved a milestone with the signing of the 250th contract.
    • The first contract under Mission DefSpace and the 100th SPRINT (Navy) contract were signed on May 15.

    What is Innovations for Defence Excellence (IDEX)?

    • IDEX is a government initiative launched in April 2018.
    • Its objective is to contribute to the modernization of the Defence Industry.
    • The initiative focuses on promoting innovation and technology development in the Defence and Aerospace sectors.
    • Industries, including MSMEs, start-ups, individual innovators, R&D institutes, and academia, are engaged under iDEX.
    • IDEX provides funding and support to these industries to carry out Research & Development activities.
    • The Defence Innovation Organization (DIO) funds and manages IDEX, serving as its executive arm.

    Key achievements of IDEX

    • The first IDEX contract of Mission DefSpace was exchanged between officials of the MoD and InspeCity, a winner of the challenge for developing a micro propulsion system for CubeSats.
    • InspeCity is working on a gas-based compact micro propulsion system that can be integrated with satellites, including the CubeSat swarm under Mission DefSpace.
    • IDEX has received over 7,500 applications from individual innovators, Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs), and startups.
    • The initiative has generated thousands of jobs and attracted India’s talent back to the country.

     

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  • Celebrating India’s Nuclear Tests

    Nuclear Tests

    Central Idea

    • On May 11 and 13, 1998, India conducted five nuclear tests that brought about significant changes in the country’s self-esteem and status in the world. The country’s military nuclear policy had been shrouded in ambiguity and opacity for two decades since its first test in 1974. However, with the 1998 tests, India emerged as a nuclear weapons state, which was received with mixed reactions from the international community, resulting in sanctions and isolation. Nonetheless, the tests marked a significant moment for India’s self-confidence and awareness of its potential.

    Nuclear Tests

    India’s nuclear tests

    • Smiling Buddha (Pokhran-I): India’s first nuclear test was conducted on May 18, 1974, in Pokhran, Rajasthan. The test was code-named “Smiling Buddha” and was a “peaceful nuclear explosion.”
    • Pokhran-II: India’s second series of nuclear tests were conducted on May 11 and 13, 1998, in Pokhran, Rajasthan. The tests included three underground nuclear tests on May 11 and two on May 13. These tests were conducted under the leadership of Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee and were code-named Operation Shakti.

    Nuclear tests dispelled myths that had dominated international opinion

    • India’s Isolation: The myth that India would be isolated and its economy would collapse under the weight of sanctions and international opprobrium was dispelled. Instead, the US took the first steps to mainstream India, treating it as an exceptional case, which culminated in the India-US Civil Nuclear Agreement in 2005.
    • India’s Inability to Manage nuclear weapons: The ethnocentric myth perpetuated by non-proliferation absolutists of the West that India and South Asia could not be trusted to manage nuclear weapons was also dispelled.

    Facts for prelims

    Treaty/Agreement Objective India’s Status
    NPT (Non-Proliferation Treaty) To prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology Non-signatory
    CTBT (Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty) To ban all nuclear explosions for both civilian and military purposes Signatory
    FMCT (Fissile Material Cut-Off Treaty) To prohibit the production of fissile material for nuclear weapons or other explosive devices Supporter
    NSG (Nuclear Suppliers Group) A group of countries that seeks to contribute to the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons through the implementation of guidelines for nuclear exports and nuclear-related exports Not a member but has applied for membership
    New START (Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty) To limit the number of deployed strategic nuclear warheads and delivery systems Not a signatory
    MTCR (Missile Technology Control Regime) To limit the spread of missiles and unmanned aerial vehicles capable of delivering weapons of mass destruction Member since 2016

    Advantages of the nuclear tests: From India’s point of view

    • Deterrence: The nuclear tests provided India with a credible nuclear deterrence capability, which could potentially deter other nuclear-armed adversaries and prevent them from using nuclear weapons against India.
    • National pride and self-confidence: The successful nuclear tests were seen as a major achievement and a source of national pride for many Indians. They helped boost India’s self-confidence and reaffirmed its status as a major global power.
    • Recognition: India’s successful nuclear tests brought it international recognition and established it as a nuclear-armed state. This recognition was particularly important for India’s security and diplomatic interests.
    • Negotiating power: With its new nuclear status, India gained greater negotiating power in international forums and in its bilateral relationships with other countries.
    • Technological advancement: The development and testing of nuclear weapons required advanced scientific and technological capabilities, and the successful tests demonstrated India’s progress in these areas.

    International Consequences: series of events

    • The United States imposed sanctions against India under the Glenn Amendment.
    • Pakistan conducted a series of nuclear tests in response.
    • Many other countries, including China, castigated India for what they saw as an outrageous contempt for the common will of the international community.

    Nuclear Tests

    Conclusion

    • India’s nuclear tests on May 11 and 13, 1998, marked a significant moment in the country’s history, boosting its self-confidence and changing its status in the world. Despite facing international criticism and sanctions, India’s nuclear program has helped to create a credible nuclear deterrent, making it a vital player in the international system.

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    Also Read:

    Whether The Nuclear Power in India Should Be Phased Out?

     

  • Genome Sequencing and the Genome India Project

    genome

    The Department of Biotechnology recently said that the exercise to sequence 10,000 Indian human genomes and create a database under the Centre-backed Genome India Project is about two-thirds complete.

    What is the Genome India Project?

    • The Genome India Project has been described by those involved as the “first scratching of the surface of the vast genetic diversity of India”.
    • It involves over 20 scientists from institutions including the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) in Bengaluru and a few IITs.
    • It is inspired by the Human Genome Project (HGP 1990-2003) an international programme that led to the decoding of the entire human genome.

    About Human Genome Project (HGP)

    Description
    Description HGP was a global research effort aimed at mapping and sequencing the entire human genome, which is the complete set of genetic instructions for building and maintaining a human being.
    Timeframe Began in 1990 and was completed in 2003.
    Collaborators A collaborative effort involving scientists from many countries.
    Coordinators Institutes of Health (NIH) and the US Department of Energy (DOE), US
    Achievements Scientists were able to identify the location of many human genes and provide information about their structure and organization.
    Impact It has led to the development of new diagnostic tools and therapies for a wide range of genetic disorders and has provided valuable insights into the basic biology of human development and evolution.
    Fields affected Medicine, biotechnology, and pharmaceuticals.

     

    What is a Genome?

    • Every organism’s genetic code is contained in its Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid (DNA), the building blocks of life.
    • The discovery that DNA is structured as a “double helix” by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953, started the quest for understanding how genes dictate life, its traits, and what causes diseases.
    • A genome is all the genetic matter in an organism. It is defined as “an organism’s complete set of DNA, including all of its genes.
    • Each genome contains all of the information needed to build and maintain that organism.
    • In humans, a copy of the entire genome contains more than 3 billion DNA base pairs.
    • Each pair consists of 23 pairs of chromosomes for a total of 46 chromosomes, which means that for 23 pairs of chromosomes in each cell, there are roughly 20,500 genes located on them.

    What does genome mapping tell us?

    • Some of the genes are lined up in a row on each chromosome, while others are lined up quite close to one another and this arrangement might affect the way they are inherited.
    • For example, if the genes are placed sufficiently close together, there is a probability that they get inherited as a pair.
    • Genome mapping, therefore, essentially means figuring out the location of a specific gene on a particular region of the chromosome and also determining the location of and relative distances between other genes on that chromosome.

    How did it help during the pandemic?

    • Genomic sequencing became a crucial tool in the fight against COVID-19 to track emerging variants, conduct further studies, and develop vaccines.
    • In January 2020, Chinese scientist Yong-Zhen Zhang sequenced the genome of the novel coronavirus and shared it online, allowing researchers to study the virus’s genetic code.
    • India also implemented a sequencing framework, the Indian SARS-COV-2 Genomics Consortia (INSACOG), to scan coronavirus samples from patients and flag the presence of variants.

    What is the significance of GIP?

    • HGP has a major diversity problem as most genomes (over 95%) mapped under HGP have been sourced from urban middle-class white people.
    • Thus, HGP should not really be seen as representative of the human genome.

    In this context, the GIP aims to vastly add to the available information on the human species and advance the cause, both because of the scale of the Indian population and the diversity here. This diversity can be depicted by:

    1. Horizontal Diversity: The Indian subcontinent has been the site of huge migrations, where the first migrations were from Africa. Also, there have been periodic migrations by various populations from all around the world, making this a very special case of almost all races and types intermingling genetically.
    2. Vertical Diversity: There has been endogamy or inter-marriage practised among distinct groups, resulting in some diseases passed on strictly within some groups and some other traits inherited by just some groups.

    Its applications

    • Personalized Medicine: Genome sequencing can help in the development of personalized medicine. By analyzing a patient’s genetic makeup, doctors can determine the best course of treatment for a particular disease. This approach can help in the early detection of diseases, identifying the risk of inherited diseases, and providing targeted therapies.
    • Disease Diagnosis: Genome sequencing can be used to diagnose genetic disorders that are caused by mutations in a single gene, such as cystic fibrosis and sickle cell anemia. It can also help in identifying the genetic causes of complex diseases such as cancer, Alzheimer’s, and diabetes.
    • Drug Development: Genome sequencing can help in the development of new drugs by identifying targets for drug therapy. It can also help in the identification of biomarkers that can be used to monitor the effectiveness of drugs.
    • Agriculture: Genome sequencing can help in the development of improved crops and livestock by identifying genes that control traits such as yield, disease resistance, and quality.
    • Forensics: Genome sequencing can be used in forensic investigations to identify suspects by analyzing their DNA. It can also help in identifying missing persons and victims of disasters.

    Challenges involved

    • Fear of Scientific Racism: In India, a nation divided by identity politics, scientific work in mapping genetic groups may further strengthen the divisions in the society based on the prevalent notion of race.
    • Data & Storage: India is yet to pass a Data Privacy Bill with adequate safeguards and launching the GIP before the privacy question is settled could give rise to another set of problems.
    • Medical Ethics: In a project that aims only to create a database of genetic information poses a risk of doctors privately performing gene modification.

     

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  • Indian scientists identify and probe EMIC waves

    emic

    Central idea

    • Scientists working at the Indian Antarctic Station, Maitri, have identified and probed Electromagnetic Ion Cyclotron (EMIC) waves to study their characteristics.
    • The study aims to understand the impact of energetic particles in the radiation belts on low orbiting satellites.

    About Indian Antarctic Station, Maitri

    Description
    Name Maitri Antarctic Station (Friendship Research Centre)
    Establishment 1984
    Location Schirmacher Oasis, East Antarctica
    Distance from other stations 5 km away from Novolazarevskaya Station
    Purpose Conducting scientific research as part of the Indian Antarctic Programme
    Features Second permanent research station of India in Antarctica
    Named by Then-PM Indira Gandhi
    First camp commander Squadron Leader D.P. Joshi
    First huts Completed in 1989 by the IV Antarctica Expedition

     

    What are EMIC Waves?

    • Electromagnetic Ion Cyclotron (EMIC) waves are a type of plasma wave that occurs in the Earth’s magnetosphere.
    • They are caused by the interaction of energetic particles in the radiation belts with the Earth’s magnetic field.
    • These waves have frequencies in the range of a few hundred hertz to a few kilohertz and are known to play an important role in the acceleration and loss of energetic particles in the Earth’s magnetosphere.
    • The study of EMIC waves is important for understanding the effects of space weather on satellite communication and navigation systems.

    Identification and study of EMIC waves

    • A team of scientists from the Indian Institute of Geomagnetism (IIG) analysed data collected between 2011 and 2017 by the Induction Coil Magnetometer.
    • The device was installed at the Indian Antarctic station Maitri to bring out several aspects of the ground observation of the EMIC waves.

    Significance of the study

    • This study is important to improve our understanding of EMIC wave modulation and how they interact with energetic particles that impact satellites and their communication.
    • It could help understand the impact of energetic particles in the radiation belts on low orbiting satellites and lead to improved satellite communication systems.

    Back2Basics:  Indian Antarctic Programme

    • It is a scientific program run by the National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research under the Ministry of Earth Sciences.
    • It was launched in 1981 and since then India has been operating research stations in Antarctica.
    • It gained global acceptance with India’s signing of the Antarctic Treaty and subsequent construction of the Dakshin Gangotri Antarctic research base in 1983, superseded by the Maitri base from 1989.
    • The program conducts research in areas such as geology, oceanography, atmospheric sciences, and earth sciences.
    • India currently operates two permanent research stations in Antarctica – Maitri and Bharati.
    • The program also has plans to set up a third research station called ‘Siddhanta’ in the coming years.
    • Apart from conducting research, the program also engages in logistics support, environmental monitoring, and outreach activities.

     

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  • Plant ‘cries’: Recalling Jagadish Chandra Bose

    bose

    Central idea

    • A recent discovery by researchers from Tel Aviv University in Israel, that plants make distinct sounds in the ultrasonic range when faced with stress, made headlines around the world.
    • However, Indians who had grown up hearing about Jagadish Chandra Bose’s work, more than a century ago, on plant physiology and their ability to feel pleasure and pain, were not surprised.

     

    Details
    Who was JC Bose? – Born in 1858 in Mymensingh, Bengal.

    – A polymath who made significant contributions to physics, biophysics, and plant physiology

    – Graduated from Calcutta University with honors in physics and studied in London and Cambridge.
    Notable works – Developed sensitive instruments for wireless telegraphy and demonstrated the first-ever wireless transmission of microwaves in 1895.

    – Showed that plants produce electrical signals in response to stimuli and made significant contributions to biophysics.
    Recognition & Controversy – Despite his contributions, he was not awarded a Nobel Prize, which many believe he deserved.

    – Refused to obtain patents for his work and rejected the idea of making money from science.

    – Claimed that even inanimate inorganic matter could respond to stimulus and regarded plants as intermediates in a continuum between animals and non-living materials, which was not easily accepted by his contemporaries.
    Legacy and Significance – Founded the Bose Institute, a premier research institute in India.

    – The crater Bose on the Moon is named after him.

    – Regarded as one of India’s greatest scientists, and his legacy continues to inspire future generations of scientists.
    Significance – Bose’s work on plant physiology and biophysics was ahead of his time and not fully understood by his contemporaries.

    – However, over the years, much of his work has been confirmed.

     

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  • The Statistical Genius: C. R. Rao

    rao

    Central idea: Indian-American statistician Calyampudi Radhakrishna Rao has been awarded the 2023 International Prize in Statistics, which is considered the Nobel Prize for statistics.  He is 102 YO.

    Who is C. R. Rao?

    • R. Rao, is an Indian-American mathematician and statistician.
    • He is currently professor emeritus at Pennsylvania State University and Research Professor at the University at Buffalo.
    • Rao has been honoured by numerous colloquia, honorary degrees, and festschrifts and was awarded the US National Medal of Science in 2002.
    • The American Statistical Association has described him as “a living legend whose work has influenced not just statistics, but has had far reaching implications for fields as varied as economics, genetics, anthropology, geology, national planning, demography, biometry, and medicine.”
    • The Times of India listed Rao as one of the top 10 Indian scientists of all time.

    Rao’s Groundbreaking Paper

    • The research paper, “Information and accuracy attainable in the estimation of statistical parameters,” was published in 1945 in the Bulletin of the Calcutta Mathematical Society.
    • The paper provided a lower limit on the variance of an unbiased estimate for a finite sample, which has since become a cornerstone of mathematical statistics.

    Key outcomes of his research

    Rao’s 1945 paper has three outcomes-

    1. Cramer-Rao inequality: It provides a lower limit on the variance of an unbiased estimate for a finite sample.
    2. Rao-Blackwell Theorem: It provides a method to improve an estimate to an optimal estimate.
    3. Information geometry: It is a new interdisciplinary area called “information geometry,” which integrated principles from differential geometry into statistics, including the concepts of metric, distance, and measure.

  • ISRO’s Reusable Launch Vehicle Mission RLV LEX

    reus

    The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) conducted a successful autonomous landing mission experiment for a Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV) at the Aeronautical Test Range in Chitradurga, Karnataka.

    What is a Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV)?

    • RLV is a type of spacecraft that is designed to be reused multiple times for launching payloads into space, instead of being discarded after a single launch like traditional rockets.
    • They are seen as a more cost-effective and sustainable option for space launches, as they reduce the need for manufacturing new rockets for each mission.
    • They typically consist of a reusable orbiter, similar to a space shuttle, and a reusable booster that provides the initial thrust needed to lift the orbiter and payload into space.
    • After the payload is released into orbit, the orbiter and booster return to Earth and land back on a runway, where they can be refurbished and reused for future launches.

    Why developing RLV is a big feat?

    Developing RLVs requires advanced technologies, including-

    1. Heat-resistant materials for protecting the spacecraft during re-entry into Earth’s atmosphere
    2. Advanced guidance and control systems for landing and
    3. Reliable propulsion systems for launching and landing

    ISRO’s RLV-TD project

    • ISRO is developing essential technologies for a fully reusable launch vehicle to enable low-cost access to space.
    • The RLV-TD is being used to develop technologies like hypersonic flight (HEX), autonomous landing (LEX), return flight experiment (REX), powered cruise flight, and Scramjet Propulsion Experiment (SPEX).
    • It looks like an aircraft and consists of a fuselage, a nose cap, double delta wings, and twin vertical tails.

    Development of RLV

    (1) First RLV experiment:

    • In 2016, the RLV-TD was launched into space on a rocket powered by a conventional solid booster (HS9) engine.
    • The spacecraft travelled at a speed of Mach 5 when re-entering the earth’s orbit and travelled a distance of 450 km before splashdown in the Bay of Bengal.
    • Critical technologies such as autonomous navigation, guidance and control, reusable thermal protection system, and re-entry mission management were successfully validated.

    (2) Second RLV experiment:

    • The RLV LEX test on April 2, 2023, involved a Chinook Helicopter lifting the RLV LEX to a height of 4.5 km and releasing the RLV.
    • After midair release, the RLV carried out an autonomous landing on the Aeronautical Test Range airstrip, under the exact conditions of a Space Re-entry vehicle’s landing.
    • It achieved landing parameters as might be experienced by an orbital re-entry space vehicle in its return path.

    Advantages of RLVs

    • Reusable launch vehicles are considered a low-cost, reliable, and on-demand mode of accessing space.
    • The cost of a launch can be reduced by nearly 80 percent of the present cost by using RLVs.

    Global RLV technologies

    • NASA space shuttles have been carrying out dozens of human space flight missions.
    • The private space launch services provider SpaceX demonstrated partially reusable launch systems with its Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy rockets since 2017.
    • SpaceX is also working on a fully reusable launch vehicle system called Starship.
    • Several private launch service providers and government space agencies are working on developing reusable launch systems.

    Significance

    • RLVs have the potential to significantly reduce the cost of space launches, as a significant portion of the cost of traditional rockets comes from the need to manufacture new rockets for each mission.
    • By reusing spacecraft, the cost per launch can be significantly reduced.
    • Additionally, RLVs can provide greater flexibility and reliability for space launches, as they can be launched on-demand instead of needing to be manufactured and assembled for each mission.

     

  • Starberry-Sense: A low cost Star Sensor

    star

    Researchers at the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) have developed a low-cost star sensor for astronomy and small CubeSat class satellite missions.

    What is Starberry-Sense?

    • Based on commercial/off-the-shelf components, this star sensor costs less than 10% of those available in the market.
    • It is made from a single-board Linux computer called Raspberry Pi, which is widely used among electronics hobby enthusiasts.

    Benefits of Starberry-Sense

    • Starberry-Sense can help small CubeSat class satellite missions find their orientation in space.
    • The instrument can be used for CubeSats and other small satellite missions in the future.
    • The position of stars in the sky is fixed relative to each other and can be used as a stable reference frame to calculate the orientation of a satellite in orbit.

    Successful test

    • The star sensor has successfully undergone the vibration and thermal vacuum test that qualifies it for a space launch and operations.
    • These tests were conducted in-house at the environmental test facility located at the CREST Campus of IIA in Hosakote.

     

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  • APJ Abdul Kalam SLV: India’s 1st Hybrid Rocket launched

    rocket

    India’s first hybrid sounding rocket by private players was launched by some students from Pattipulam village off Tamil Nadu coast.

    About APJ Abdul Kalam SLV

    • Martin Foundation in association with Dr APJ Abdul Kalam International Foundation and Space Zone India successfully completed the project known as Dr APJ Abdul Kalam Satellite Launch Vehicle Mission 2023.
    • The student team included 200 from the fishermen community in Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry, 100 students from tribal communities across India, and 60 from Tamil Nadu.

    What is a Hybrid Rocket?

    • A hybrid rocket is a type of rocket engine that combines features of both liquid-fueled and solid-fueled rockets. In a hybrid rocket, a solid fuel is burned in combination with a liquid or gaseous oxidizer to produce thrust.
    • The solid fuel in a hybrid rocket is typically made of a polymer, such as hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB), which is cast into a cylindrical shape and placed inside the rocket motor.
    • The oxidizer, which is typically nitrous oxide (N2O), is stored in a separate tank and fed into the combustion chamber of the rocket motor.

    How does it work?

    • When the oxidizer is introduced into the combustion chamber, it reacts with the solid fuel, producing a hot gas that is expelled through a nozzle at the end of the rocket.
    • The combustion process can be controlled by adjusting the flow rate of the oxidizer, making hybrid rockets more controllable than solid rockets.

    Benefits offered over conventional rockets

    • Hybrid rockets are generally simpler and less expensive to manufacture than liquid rockets, while providing more control than solid rockets.
    • They are also safer than both liquid and solid rockets, since the fuel and oxidizer are stored separately and can be easily shut off in case of an emergency.

     

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