GS Paper: GS1-01.Indian Culture- Salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times.

Why in the News

Researchers have identified nearly 30 Indian inscriptions in the Valley of the Kings in Egypt, shedding new light on trade and cultural links between ancient Tamilagam, other parts of India and the Roman Empire during the 1st to 3rd centuries CE.

Key Findings

• Tamil Majority Presence

  • Most inscriptions belong to individuals from southern India, especially ancient Tamilagam, though some were from north-western and western India.

• Repeated Name: Cikai Koṟṟaṉ

  • Appears eight times across five tombs.
  • Found near entrances and high interior walls.
  • The term Koṟṟaṉ has Tamil roots associated with victory and warfare.
  • Related to the Chera warrior goddess Koṟṟavai and the word koṟṟavaṉ meaning king.
• The name also appears in:
  • Sangam literature such as Purananooru
  • Inscriptions from Pugalur, linked to the Chera dynasty
  • A pottery sherd found at Berenike in Egypt

• Other Tamil Names

• • Kopāṉ varata kantan meaning Kopāṉ came and saw
  • Cātaṉ
  • Kiraṉ

The name Kopāṉ has also been found at Ammankovilpatti in Tamil Nadu.

Historical Significance

• Confirms movement of Indian traders or visitors beyond Red Sea ports into the Nile valley.
• Strengthens evidence of Indo Roman trade links.
• Earlier excavations at Berenike had already shown Indian trade presence.
• This discovery shifts focus from coastal trade points to inland Egyptian sites.

[2023] With reference to ancient South India, Korkai, Poompuhar and Muchiri were well known as: (a) capital cities  (b) ports  (c) centres of iron and steel making  (d) shrines of Jain Tirthankaras

Why in the News?

UNESCO has included the ‘Diamond Triangle’ Buddhist sites of Odisha in India’s Tentative List for future consideration as a World Heritage Site.The sites are located in Jajpur and Cuttack districts of Odisha

What is the ‘Diamond Triangle’?

• A cluster of three ancient Buddhist sites 
  • Ratnagiri
  • Udayagiri
  • Lalitgiri Known as the epicentre of Buddhism in eastern India

Historical and Religious Significance

• The sites witnessed the propagation of all three schools of Buddhism
  • Hinayana
  • Mahayana
  • Vajrayana
  • Rich remains of Stupas, Monasteries, Relics, Sculptures of Lord Buddha and Buddhist deities

What is a Tentative List?

• Mandatory prerequisite for nomination to the World Heritage List
• Identifies sites of Outstanding Universal Value
• Can be cultural, natural or mixed
• Only sites on the tentative list can be considered for final inscription

India and the Tentative List

• India currently has 70 sites on the tentative list
• Categories include cultural, natural and mixed
• Odisha sites already on the tentative list include
  • Ekamra Kshetra, Bhubaneswar
  • Chilika Lake
  • Chausathi Yogini temples group was added last year
  • Two located in Odisha at Bhubaneswar outskirts and Balangir

Prelims Pointers

• Tentative list inclusion does not guarantee World Heritage status
• Diamond Triangle reflects pan Buddhist evolution in India
• ASI is the official nodal agency for UNESCO nominations
• Odisha is emerging as a major Buddhist heritage corridor

[2024] Consider the following properties included in the World Heritage List released by UNESCO:  1. Shantiniketan  2. Rani-ki-Vav  3. Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas  4. Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodhgaya  How many of the above properties were included in 2023?  (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) All four

Why in the News?

Excavations begun on January 16 at the Kote Veerabhadreshwar Temple premises in Lakkundi village of Gadag have yielded Neolithic period relics, strengthening efforts to nominate Lakkundi for inclusion in the UNESCO World Heritage Sites list.

About Lakkundi

• Located about 12 km from Gadag district headquarters
• Historically known as Lokkigundi
• Referred to as the village of hundred wells and temples
• Mentioned in 11th and 12th century inscriptions, compared to Amaravati for affluence
• Known for tankashale or mint

Historical Significance

• Ruled by Kalyana Chalukyas, Yadavas and Hoysalas
• Capital of Hoysala king Eradane Ballala (Veeraballala) in 1192 AD
• Centre of Jainism and Shaivism

Cultural and Religious Legacy

• Associated with Queen Attimabbe, known as Daana Chintamani, patron of Jainism
• Built temples, Jain basadis and wells for public welfare
• Daana Chintamani Attimabbe Prashasti instituted by Karnataka government
• Shelter to 12th century Sharanas like Ajaganna and Muktayakka linked to Basaveshwara movement

Architectural Features

• Temples built in Kalyana Chalukya architectural style
• Mumbai State Gazetteer records 13 temples, including Kashi Vishveshwara, Mallikarjuna, Virupaksha, Nanneshwara and Someshwara. 
• Wells are noted for ornate stone carvings

Prelims Pointers

• Neolithic findings indicate prehistoric human activity
• Lakkundi reflects temple town planning with wells
• UNESCO tentative list precedes final World Heritage inscription
• Community participation is central to heritage conservation here

[2024] Consider the following properties included in the World Heritage List released by UNESCO:  1. Shantiniketan  2. Rani-ki-Vav  3. Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas  4. Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodhgaya  How many of the above properties were included in 2023?  (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) All four

Why in the News?

The Padma Awards 2026 were announced on the eve of Republic Day, with the President of India approving 131 awards across the Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan, and Padma Shri categories.

What are the Padma Awards?

• Among India’s highest civilian honours
• Conferred for distinguished and exceptional service with a clear element of public service
• Instituted in 1954 by the Government of India

Historical Background

• Initially, two civilian awards were instituted in 1954
  • Bharat Ratna
  • Padma Vibhushan
• In 1955, Padma Vibhushan was reclassified into three categories
  • Padma Vibhushan
  • Padma Bhushan
  • Padma Shri
• Awards are announced annually on Republic Day
• Not conferred during 1978 to 1979 and 1993 to 1997

Categories and Purpose

• Padma Vibhushan: Exceptional and distinguished service
• Padma Bhushan: Distinguished service of a high order
• Padma Shri: Distinguished service in any field

Eligibility Criteria

• Open to all persons, irrespective of race, gender, occupation, or position
• Government servants, including PSU employees, are generally not eligible
  • Exception for doctors and scientists
• Normally not awarded posthumously
  • Permitted in exceptional cases
• Minimum gap of 5 years required for a higher Padma category
  • Can be relaxed in deserving cases
• Award recognises excellence plus, not merely long service

Fields Recognised

• Art, Social Work, Public Affairs, Science and Engineering, Trade and Industry, Medicine, including AYUSH, Literature and Education, Civil Service, Sports and Others, such as culture, environment, wildlife conservation, and human rights

Consider the following statements in respect of Bharat Ratna and Padma Awards:  1. Bharat Ratna and Padma Awards are titles under Article 18(1) of the Constitution of India.  2. Padma Awards, which were instituted in the year 1954, were suspended only once 3. The number of Bharat Ratna Awards is restricted to a maximum of five in a particular year.  Which of the above statements are not correct?  (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3

Why in the News?

On Thiruvalluvar Day, Prime Minister Narendra Modi paid homage to Thiruvalluvar, highlighting the timeless relevance of his ideals and urging people to read the Tirukkural.

About Thiruvalluvar

• Celebrated Tamil poet philosopher of the Sangam age
• Believed to have lived around 2000 years ago
• Associated with Mylapore in present day Chennai
• Also known as Valluvar
• Revered as a saint across South India
• In some traditions regarded as an incarnation of Brahma

Social and Religious Context

• Lived during a period when Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism coexisted
• Scholars associate him with Jainism or Hinduism
• Demonstrated that householder life can lead to spiritual excellence
• Rejected the necessity of renunciation for moral and spiritual attainment

Prelims Pointers

• Tirukkural has 1330 couplets
• Official birth year recognised as 31 BCE
• Associated with Sangam literature
• Emphasised ethics, governance, and social harmony
• Revered across religious traditions

[2020] Which one of the following statements about Sangam literature in ancient South India is correct?  (a) Sangam poems are devoid of any reference to material culture (b) The social classification of Varna was known to Sangam poets (c) Sangam poems have no reference to warrior ethic (d) Sangam literature refers to magical forces as irrational

Why in the News?

The traditional Kathputli art of Rajasthan, centred in Kathputli Nagar of Jaipur, highlights India’s rich intangible cultural heritage, where nearly 250 artisan families continue a centuries old puppet tradition amid challenges from modern entertainment.

What is Kathputli?

• Kathputli is one of India’s oldest folk puppet traditions
• The word derives from
  • Kath meaning wood
  • Putli meaning doll
• Puppets are string operated wooden figures with painted faces and colourful costumes

Region and Community

• Practised mainly in Rajasthan
• Kathputli Nagar (Puppets Colony) in Jaipur is a major living hub
• Craft is hereditary, passed down across generations within families

Historical Significance

• Traditionally performed by travelling storytellers
• Used to narrate
  • Tales of Rajput kings and warriors
  • Folk legends and moral stories
• Served as a mass communication medium before print and digital media

Current Challenges

• Competition from digital entertainment
• Economic insecurity for artisans
• Dependence on tourism and cultural events

Prelims Pointers

• Kathputli is a string puppet tradition
• Originated in Rajasthan
• Major hub is Kathputli Nagar, Jaipur
• Puppets are made of wood and cloth
• Historically used to narrate royal and folk tales

[2024] Which one of the following was the latest inclusion in the Intangible Cultural Heritage List of UNESCO?  (a) Chhau dance  (b) Durga Puja  (c) Garba dance  (d) Kumbh Mela

Why in the News?

Archaeologists have unearthed ancient Buddhist stupas and settlement remains at Zehanpora in Baramulla, reviving Kashmir’s 2,000 year old Buddhist past. The breakthrough was aided by century old photographs preserved in a French museum, which guided modern excavations.

About the Zehanpora Discovery

• Location: Zehanpora village, Baramulla district, along the Jhelum River
• Site lies on an ancient Silk Route corridor linking Kashmir to Central Asia and Kandahar
• Excavations began in July 2025 after drone surveys, aerial mapping, and ground verification

Key Archaeological Findings

• Three Buddhist stupas
• Urban type settlement complex likely including chaityas and viharas
• Apsidal stupa architecture with pradakshina path
• Kushan era artefacts
  • Pottery shards
  • Copper objects
  • Stone walls
• Evidence of long term monastic and urban activity

Historical Significance

Gandhara Buddhist Network

• Discovery firmly links Kashmir to the Gandhara Buddhist cultural network
• Establishes Kashmir as a central hub of Buddhist learning, not a peripheral region
• Demonstrates cultural and intellectual exchange between South Asia and Central Asia

Chronological Context

• Buddhist presence in Kashmir began during Ashoka’s reign (3rd century BCE)
• Flourished under the Kushan Empire (1st to 3rd century CE)
• Kushans promoted urbanisation, trade, and Buddhism

Literary Corroboration

• Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang mentioned entering Kashmir via the Silk Route
• Zehanpora excavation provides material archaeological evidence supporting textual references

Role of French Museum Photographs

• In 2023, century old photographs showing three stupas in Baramulla were discovered
• Images validated local archaeological hypotheses
• Triggered systematic excavation and site identification

Prelims Pointers

• Zehanpora is located in Baramulla district
• Site linked to Gandhara Buddhism
• Artefacts belong mainly to Kushan period
• Apsidal stupas allow circumambulatory worship
• Discovery aided by foreign archival material

[2023] With reference to ancient India, consider the following statements:  1. The concept of Stupa is Buddhist in origin.  2. Stupa was generally a repository of relics 3. Stupa was a votive and commemorative structure in Buddhist tradition How many of the statements given above are correct?  (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None

Why in the News?

The Prime Minister of India highlighted the thousand year survival of the Somnath Temple, marking 1,000 years since the 1026 CE attack by Mahmud of Ghazni.

Somnath Temple

• One of the 12 sacred Jyotirlingas of Lord Shiva
• Revered across Hindu tradition
• Known as the Eternal Shrine due to repeated destruction and reconstruction

Location

• Prabhas Patan, near Veraval, Saurashtra region of Gujarat
• Located on the Arabian Sea coast
• At the Triveni Sangam of Kapila, Hiran, and Saraswati rivers

Historical Significance

Ancient Origins

• Mentioned in Shiva Purana
• Evidence of worship since antiquity
• Multiple reconstructions in pre medieval times

1026 CE Event

• Temple attacked and plundered by Mahmud of Ghazni
• Considered a major historical rupture in Indian history

Medieval Period

• Rebuilt by rulers such as Kumarapala of the Chaulukya dynasty
• Reconstructed under Chudasama kings
• Destroyed again during Sultanate invasions

Symbol of Resilience

• Historical records indicate the temple was destroyed six times
• Rebuilt after every destruction
• Became a symbol of civilisational continuity and faith

Architectural Features

• Built in Chaulukya or Solanki style
• Prominent shikhara and richly carved stone walls
• Garbhagriha houses the Jyotirlinga
• Famous inscription stating no landmass lies between Somnath and the South Pole, symbolising cosmic alignment

Modern Reconstruction

Post Independence Revival

• Reconstruction initiated in 1947
• Led by Vallabhbhai Patel as a civilisational responsibility
• Designed by architect Prabhashankar Sompura using traditional methods

Inauguration

• Inaugurated on 11 May 1951
• By Rajendra Prasad
• Despite the political debates of the period

Present Management

• Managed by the Somnath Trust
• Trust is chaired by the Prime Minister of India

[2022] The Prime Minister recently inaugurated the new Circuit House near Somnath Temple at Veraval. Which of the following statements are correct regarding Somnath Temple?  1. Somnath Temple is one of the Jyotirlinga shrines.  2. A description of Somnath Temple was given by Al-Biruni 3. Pran Pratishtha of Somnath Temple (installation of the present-day temple) was done by President S. Radhakrishnan.  Select the correct answer using the code given below:  (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

Why in the News? 

The Prime Minister Narendra Modi highlighted Narsapuram Lace Craft in Man Ki Baat as a model of women led economic empowerment and cultural continuity. The craft’s Geographical Indication tag has renewed national attention.

What it is

• A traditional handmade crochet lace craft
  • Fine threads are transformed into intricate lace using a single crochet hook
  • Known for high precision, patience and skill

Region

• Andhra Pradesh
  • Districts: West Godavari and Dr B R Ambedkar Konaseema
  • Key centres: Narsapur, Palacole, Razole, Amalapuram

History

• Introduced in 1844 by European missionaries who trained local women
  • Withstood famines and economic depressions
  • Sustained women’s livelihoods across generations
  • Evolved into a globally recognised hand crafted textile tradition

Key Characteristics

• Raw materials: Fine cotton threads, also silk, rayon and synthetic yarns
  • Tools: Crochet hooks of different sizes for varied textures
  • Technique: Manual looping and interlocking of stitches without machinery
  • Design motifs: Floral, paisley and geometric patterns inspired by nature
  • Products: Garments, doilies, bedspreads, table linen, cushion covers, stoles and wall hangings

Significance

• Provides regular income to thousands of women
  • Strengthens women’s role as primary earners in households
  • Preserves an indigenous textile heritage
  • GI tag enhances market recognition and cultural protection

Prelims Pointers

• Type: Handmade crochet lace
  • Origin year: 1844
  • Nature: Women centric livelihood craft
  • Legal status: GI tagged traditional craft
  • Cultural relevance: Godavari region heritage

[2018] Consider the following pairs:      Craft                        :  Heritage of  1. Puthukkuli shawls : Tamil Nadu  2. Sujni embroidery : Maharashtra  3. Uppada Jamdani saris : Karnataka  Which of the pairs given above is/are correct?  (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3