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GS Paper: GS1-01.Indian Culture- Salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times.

  • Perumbidugu Mutharaiyar II (Suvaran Maran)

    Why in the News?

    A commemorative postage stamp honouring Perumbidugu Mutharaiyar II was recently released by the Vice President of India, highlighting his importance in early medieval South Indian history.

    About Perumbidugu Mutharaiyar

    • Reign period: c. 705 AD to 745 AD
     • Also known as Suvaran Maran and Shatrubhayankar
     • Belonged to the Mutharaiyar lineage of Tamil Nadu
     • Known as a brave warrior, able administrator, and patron of learning
     • Fought alongside Pallava king Nandivarman II in several battles
     • Represents the phase of powerful Pallava feudatories gaining autonomy

    Religious and Cultural Patronage

    • Patron of Shaivism
     • Jain monk Vimalachandra visited his court for religious and philosophical debates
     • Reflects religious tolerance and intellectual exchange

    Who were the Mutharaiyars

    • A prominent chieftain clan of early medieval Tamil Nadu
     • Served as feudatories of the Pallava dynasty
     • Gained political prominence as Pallava authority weakened
     • Eventually ruled as independent regional powers

    Territorial Influence

    • Dominated regions along the Cauvery river basin
     • Key areas: Thanjavur, Pudukkottai, Perambalur, Tiruchirappalli
     • Controlled fertile agrarian zones and cultural centres

    Architectural Contributions

    • Renowned temple builders under Pallava influence
     • Major contributors to rock cut cave temples
     • Cave temple activity continued till the early ninth century
     • Acted as a link between Pallava and early Chola architecture

    Consider the following events in the history of India: (2020)

    (1) Rise of Pratiharas under King Bhoja (2) Establishment of Pallava power under Mahendravarman – I (3) Establishment of Chola power by Parantaka – I (4) Pala dynasty founded by Gopala What is the correct chronological order of the above events, starting from the earliest time? (a) 2 – 1 – 4 – 3 (b) 3 – 1 – 4 – 2 (c) 2 – 4 – 1 – 3 (d) 3 – 4 – 1 – 2

  • Bison Horn Maria Dance and Dandami Madia Tribe

    Why in the News?

    The Bison Horn Maria dance of the Dandami Madia tribe was highlighted during recent village festivals in Jagdalpur, Bastar region of Chhattisgarh, showcasing the living tribal cultural heritage of central India.

    Dandami Madia Tribe

    • Also known as Maria
     • Sub group of the Gond tribe
     • Inhabits Bastar region of southern Chhattisgarh
     • Major areas: Darbha, Tokapal, Lohandiguda and Dantewada
     • Traditionally forest dependent community
     • Livelihood, rituals and beliefs closely linked to nature
     • Cultural roots trace back to the historic Gondwana region

    Bison Horn Maria Dance

    • One of the most distinctive tribal dances of India
     • Performed by both men and women
     • Symbolises hunting traditions, village rituals and harmony with nature
     • Men wear horn shaped headgear made of bamboo decorated with bison horns, feathers, shells and coloured cloth
     • Bead necklaces and brass anklets are integral to male attire
     • Women wear handwoven saris, heavy silver and brass ornaments
     • Jewellery often includes rupee coins ranging from ₹1 to ₹10
     • Musical instruments include drums and bamboo flutes

    Prelims Pointers

    • Dandami Madia are part of the Gond tribal group
     • Bastar region is a major hub of tribal art, dance and ritual traditions
     • Bison Horn Maria dance is both a ritualistic and cultural performance
     • Reflects India’s intangible cultural heritage preserved through oral tradition and practice

    Consider the following pairs: Tribe → State (2013)

    (1). Limboo (Limbu) : Sikkim (2). Karbi : Himachal Pradesh (3). Dongaria Kondh : Odisha (4). Bonda : Tamil Nadu Which of the above pairs are correctly matched? (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 and 4 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

  • Delhi Parsi Anjuman Centenary  

    Why in the News?

    Delhi Parsi Anjuman DPA is celebrating its 100 years of establishment in 2025.

    About Parsis in India

    • Parsis migrated to India around 8th century CE from Persia modern day Iran due to religious persecution.
     • They followed sea trade routes and mainly settled in Gujarat and Maharashtra.
     • Known for contributions in trade industry law healthcare and public life.

    Parsis in Delhi

    • First Parsi settlement in Delhi dates to the 19th century.
     • Legend links early Parsi presence to Meherjirana the first Dastur invited by Mughal emperor Akbar during the 16th century.
     • Major influx occurred after British shifted capital from Calcutta to Delhi in 1911.
     • First recorded Parsi migrant to Delhi was Naowroji Kapadia from Bharuch Gujarat.

    Delhi Parsi Anjuman DPA

    • Established in 1925 by 40 trustees.
     • Location Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg New Delhi.
     • First President Naowroji Kapadia.
     • Meaning of Anjuman Persian word meaning congregation.
     • Objective Cultural spiritual and social hub for the Parsi community in Delhi.
     • Current Parsi population in Delhi around 500 in 2023-24.

    Key Institutions under DPA

    • Dar-e-Mehr Zoroastrian fire temple established in 1961.
     • Only Zoroastrian fire temple in North India.
     • Dharamshala banquet hall and Katgara Hall newly renovated in 2025.

    Important Facts for Prelims

    • Delhi Parsi Anjuman founded in 1925.
     • Centenary year 2025.
     • Dar-e-Mehr in Delhi is the only fire temple in North India.
     • Parsis played a key role in shaping Delhi’s legal architectural and healthcare institutions.

    Which one of the following was the latest inclusion in the Intangible Cultural Heritage List of UNESCO? (2024)

    (a) Chhau dance 

    (b) Durga Puja 

    (c) Garba dance 

    (d) Kumbh Mela

  • Boreendo

    Why in the News?

    Boreendo, an ancient traditional musical instrument from Pakistan, has been inscribed on UNESCO’s List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding.

    About Boreendo

    • Also known as Bhorindo
     • Traditional wind instrument from the Sindh region of Pakistan
     • Believed to be around 5,000 years old
     • Origins traced to Mohenjo Daro of the Indus Valley Civilisation

    Physical Features

    • Hollow spherical body with sound holes
     • Made of clay that is sun dried and kiln fired
     • Decorated using clay paint

    Cultural Practices

    • Played mainly by men
     • Women traditionally decorate the instrument
     • Used during winter bonfires, weddings, and local festivals

    UNESCO Significance

    • Listed under Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding
     • Recognition highlights the risk of decline due to reduced practitioners and changing cultural practices
     • Aims to promote preservation, transmission, and awareness of the art form

    Prelims Pointers

    • Region: Sindh, Pakistan
     • Material: Clay
     • Type: Wind musical instrument
     • Civilisational link: Indus Valley Civilisation
     • UNESCO list focuses on endangered living traditions

    The famous female figurine known as ‘Dancing Girl’, found at Mohenjo-daro, is made of: (2025)

    (a) carnelian 

    (b) clay 

    (c) bronze 

    (d) gold

  • Assam Day & Chaolung Sukapha 

    Why in the News?

    Assam Day was celebrated in New Delhi on 2 December 2025, led by Union Minister Sarbananda Sonowal, paying tribute to Chaolung Sukapha, founder of the Ahom Kingdom and architect of “Greater Assam.”

    About Chaolung Sukapha

    • Founder of the Ahom Kingdom (established c. 1228 CE).
    • Migrated from present-day Yunnan region (original Tai-Ahom lineage).
    • Crossed the Patkai Hills to enter Assam.
    • Known for integrating diverse communities through:
      • Goodwill
      • Empathy
      • Just and inclusive administration
    • Believed in winning the “hearts of people” as the basis for stable governance.
    • Sukapha is revered as the architect of “Greater Assam.”
    • Sukapha Divas / Assam Day is celebrated on 2 December.
    • First official celebration in 2016 at Charaideo, during Sonowal’s tenure as CM.

    Ahom Kingdom

    • Ruled Assam for nearly 600 years (1228–1826).
    • Capital at various times: Charaideo, Sibsagar, Garhgaon, etc.
    • Famous for:
      • Efficient land revenue system (Paik system)
      • Strong military organisation
      • Architecture: Maidams (Ahom burial mounds)
    • Successfully resisted Mughal expansion (Battle of Saraighat, 1671).
    In the context of Indian history, which of the following statements is/are correct? (2021)

    1. The Nizamat of Arcot emerged out of Hyderabad State.

    2. The Mysore Kingdom emerged out of Vijayanagara Empire.

    3. Rohilkhand Kingdom was formed out of the territories occupied by Ahmad Shah Durrani. Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 and 2

    (b) 2 only

    (c) 2 and 3

    (d) 3 only

  • Hornbill Festival 2025

    Why in the news?

    The 26th edition of Nagaland’s iconic Hornbill Festival has begun with great enthusiasm, reaffirming its status as one of India’s most vibrant cultural events. The festival has grown into a major platform for showcasing the cultural diversity of Nagaland’s tribes and promoting tourism in the Northeast.

    What is the Hornbill Festival?  

    • First organised: 2000
    • Also called: “Festival of Festivals”
    • Purpose:
      • Promote inter-tribal interaction
      • Preserve indigenous Naga heritage
      • Blend traditional and contemporary art forms
    • Organised by:
      • Department of Tourism, Government of Nagaland
      • Department of Art & Culture, Government of Nagaland
    • Venue: Naga Heritage Village, Kisama, ~12 km from Kohima, Nagaland
    • Named after: The Hornbill bird, which is deeply associated with the socio-cultural identity of the Nagas
    Consider the following pairs: Tradition State (2018)

    1. Chapchar Kut festival — Mizoram 

    2. Khongjom Parba ballad — Manipur 

    3. Thang-Ta dance — Sikkim 

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correct? 

    (a) 1 only 

    (b) 1 and 2 

    (c) 3 only 

    (d) 2 and 3

  • Protesters clash with police for a second day as Sangai Festival kicks off in Manipur

    Why In The News?

    The Sangai Festival in Manipur opened amid protests by IDPs and NGOs, lowering attendance. Critics say the government should prioritise resolving the Kuki-Zo–Meitei ethnic conflict and resettling displaced people before holding tourism events after the May 2023 violence.

    1) About Sangai Festival:

    • Celebration Period: Manipur Sangai Festival is held every year from 21-30 November.
    • Objective: The festival aims to showcase Manipur as a world-class tourism destination.
    • Name Origin: It is named after the State animal – the Sangai, the brow-antlered deer found only in Manipur.
    • Beginning: The festival started in 2010.
    • Theme: The theme for this year is “Festival of Oneness.”
    • Focus Areas: It highlights Manipur’s tourism potential in Arts & Culture, Handloom, Handicrafts, Indigenous Sports, Cuisine, and Music.

    2) About Sangai Deer:

    General Information:

    • Scientific Name: Rucervus eldii
    • Common Names: Sangai, Brow-antlered Deer, Dancing Deer
    • Population: About 260 (Forest Department census, 2016).
    • Habitat: Exclusively in Keibul Lamjao National Park, located on phumdi in Loktak Lake, Bishnupur district.

    Characteristics:

    • Medium-sized deer with distinctive long brow antlers forming the main beam.
    • Antlers appear to grow from the eyebrow, giving the name brow-antlered deer.
    • Possesses a dark reddish-brown winter coat that becomes paler in summer.
    • Walks with mincing hops on floating phumdi, hence called the Dancing Deer.

    Status:

    • State Animal of Manipur.
    • Listed in Schedule-I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
    • Classified as Endangered on the IUCN Red List.

    Conservation Issues:

    • Threatened by degenerating phumdi habitat due to continuous inundation from the artificial reservoir.
    • Invasion of non-native plants like Paragrass.
    • Risks from diseases, inbreeding depression, and poaching.

    3) Manipur Crisis:

    About the Violence:

    • Violence occurred between Kuki tribe and Meitei community across multiple regions of Manipur.
    • The Imphal Valley (10% of land) is dominated by Meiteis (64% of population) and elects 40 of 60 MLAs.
    • The hills (90% of land) are inhabited by 35%+ recognised tribes, electing 20 MLAs.
    • Unrest began in February 2023 after an eviction drive seen as targeting a tribal group.

    Meitei Demand for ST Status:

    • Supported by the Scheduled Tribes Demand Committee of Manipur (STDCM) since 2012.
    • Claim that Meiteis were recognised as a tribe before the 1949 merger with India.
    • Demand ST status to preserve land, culture, language, and ancestral identity.
    • Argue they face marginalisation and cite population decline from 59% (1951) to 44% (2011).

    Why Tribal Groups Oppose ST Status for Meiteis:

    • Tribals argue Meiteis already hold demographic, political, and economic advantages.
    • Fear ST status will allow Meiteis to acquire land in the hills, reducing tribal land rights.
    • Meitei dominance includes:
      • Manipuri language in the Eighth Schedule
      • Sections already under SC/OBC categories
    • Tribes believe Meitei claims of cultural vulnerability are self-defeating.
    [UPSC 2017] Consider the following pairs : Traditions Communities

    1. Chaliha Sahib Festival — Sindhis

    2. Nanda Raj Jaat Yatra — Gonds

    3. Wari-Warkari — Santhals Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

    Options: (a) 1 only* (b) 2 and 3 only (c)1 and 3 only (d) None of the above

     

  • The story behind Himachal Pradesh’s traditional Raulane Festival

    Why In The News?

    Bright, colourful, and captivating photos of the Raulane festival from Himachal Pradesh have recently gone viral on social media, sparking widespread discussion about the festival’s unique rituals and the rich cultural heritage of this centuries-old tradition.

    About Raulane Festival:

    • Location & Timing: The Raulane festival is celebrated in Kalpa, located in the Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh, during winter or early spring.
    • Ancient Origins: The festival is believed to be around 5,000 years old, making it one of the region’s oldest surviving traditions.
    • Celestial Beings (Saunis): This ancient festival honours celestial fairies called Saunis, described as radiant and gentle beings.
    • Belief & Protection: Locals believe that the Saunis protect villagers during harsh winters by offering warmth, guidance, and spiritual support.
    • Symbolic Marriage Ritual: During the festival, two men symbolically “marry” and act as vessels for the Saunis, representing the divine couple – the Raula (groom) and the Raulane (bride).
    • Traditional Attire: The chosen men are dressed in heavy woollen robes, adorned with ornaments and distinctive face masks.
    • Ritual Dance: They perform a slow, meditative dance at the Nagin Narayan Temple, where the entire community participates and celebrates.
    • Cultural Significance: The Raulane festival helps preserve ancient Himalayan culture and traditions, bringing villagers together to honour their divine protectors.
    [UPSC 2018] Consider the following pairs:

    Tradition State
    1. Chapchar Kut festival — Mizoram
    2. Khongjom Parba ballad — Manipur
    3. Thong-To dance — Sikkim

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correct?

    Options:

    (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2* (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3

     

  • Sankaradeva’s Vrindavani Vastra to be displayed in Assam

    Why in the News?

    Assam Chief Minister Himanta Biswa Sarma left for London to initiate the process of bringing back the revered Vrindavani Vastra from the British Museum.

    Sankaradeva’s Vrindavani Vastra to be displayed in Assam

    About Vrindavani Vastra:

    • Origin: 16th-century silk tapestry woven under the guidance of Srimanta Sankaradeva at Taniguchi (Barpeta), Assam.
    • Commission: Requested by Cilarai, brother of Koch king Naranarayana.
    • Weavers: Led by disciple Gopal (Mathuradas Budha Ata).
    • Design & Content:
      • Depicts Krishna’s childhood and Vrindavan leelas – birth, adventures, defeat of Kamsa.
      • Multicoloured silk with loom-embroidered captions for each scene.
    • Current Status:
      • Original piece lost; fragments preserved in British Museum, Victoria & Albert Museum (London), Guimet Museum (Paris).
      • Plans are underway to bring it to Assam temporarily in 2027.

    Who was Srimanta Sankaradeva (1449–1568)?

    • About: Assamese Vaishnavite saint, scholar, cultural reformer, and polymath.
    • Religious Contribution:
      • Founded Ekasarana Dharma: Monotheistic Bhakti movement centred on Lord Krishna.
      • Rejected idol worship, caste divisions, Brahmanical orthodoxy, and sacrifices.
      • Motto: “Eka Deva, Eka Seva, Eka Biney Nahi Kewa” (One God, One Service, None Else).
      • Influenced Koch and Ahom kingdoms.
    • Cultural Contribution:
      • Borgeet (devotional songs).
      • Ankia Naat & Bhaona (religious theatre).
      • Sattriya dance (recognised as a classical dance of India).
      • Brajavali (literary language).
    • Social Reform:
      • Considered the father of modern Assamese identity.
      • Promoted equality, fraternity, and community cohesion.
      • Ended regressive practices (e.g., human sacrifice).
    • Legacy:
      • Combined art, devotion, and social reform into a unified cultural renaissance.
      • Revered as one of Assam’s greatest spiritual and cultural icons.
    [UPSC 2014] With reference to the famous Sattriya dance, consider the following statements:

    1. Sattriya is a combination of music, dance and drama.

    2. It is a centuries-old living tradition of Vaishnavites of Assam.

    3. It is based on classical Ragas and Talas of devotional songs composed by Tulsidas, Kabir and Mirabai.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only* (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 only

     

  • Konark Sun Temple

    Why in the News?

    The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has prohibited tourist entry to the Nata Mandap (Hall of Dance) at the Sun Temple, Konark, citing safety concerns.

    konark

    About the Konark Sun Temple:

    • It is located approximately 64 km from Bhubaneswar, Odisha.
    • It was built in the 13th century (around 1250 CE) during the reign of King Narasimhadeva I of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty.
    • It is dedicated to Surya, the Sun God.
    • It is designed as a massive chariot drawn by 7 horses with 24 intricately carved wheels.
    • It was constructed from Khondalite stone, known for its durability and intricate carvings.
    • The structure originally included a sanctum (deul) and an assembly hall (jagamohan) that have largely collapsed.

    Historical Significance:

    • The Konark Wheel, featured on Indian currency (old ₹20 and new ₹10 notes), symbolizes Odisha’s rich cultural heritage and national identity.
    • It reflects 13th-century advancements in timekeeping and astronomy through its sundial functionality.
    • It embodies the cycle of life and serves as a testament to the worship of Surya, the Sun God.
    • It is a key example of the Kalinga architectural style, highlighting the Eastern Ganga Dynasty’s achievements.

    konark

    Architectural Significance:

    • Design: Represents a chariot of the Sun God, drawn by 7 horses, with 24 intricately carved wheels.
    • Wheel Details:
      • Diameter: 9 feet 9 inches.
      • Spokes: 8 wide and 8 thin, symbolising prahars (three-hour periods).
    • Symbolism:
      • 7 horses: 7 days of the week.
      • 12 pairs of wheels: 12 months.
      • 24 wheels: 24 hours in a day.
    • Sundial Functionality: Two wheels act as sundials, showing time from sunrise to sunset using the axel’s shadow.
    • Carvings: Features intricate designs of foliage, animals, and human figures, showcasing exceptional craftsmanship.
    [UPSC 2021] With reference to the Chausath Yogini Temple situated near Morena, consider the following statements:
    1. It is a circular temple built during the reign of the Kachchhapaghata Dynasty.
    2. It is the only circular temple built in India.
    3. It was meant to promote the Vaishnava cult in the region.
    4. Its design has given rise to a popular belief that it was the inspiration behind the Indian Parliament building.
    Which of the statements given above are correct?
    Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 4* (d) 2, 3, and 4