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GS Paper: GS3-17.Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, Robotics, Nano-technology, Bio-technology and issues relating to Intellectual Property Rights.

  • Neurogenesis in the Human Brain

    Why in the News?

    A recent study (2025, Science) found young neurons in the adult brain, challenging the old belief that Neurogenesis (neurons formation) occur only in childhood.

    What is Neurogenesis?

    • Overview: Formation of new neurons from stem or progenitor cells.
    • Established in Animals: Well-known in mice, rats, and monkeys; also active during human childhood development.
    • Debate in Humans: Longstanding question if it continues in adulthood, especially in the hippocampus (brain’s memory and learning hub).
    • Hippocampal Role: The dentate gyrus is believed to sustain lifelong neurogenesis, helping in memory formation, flexibility, and stress control.

    Key findings of the Study:

    • Conducted by: Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, published in Science (2025).
    • Study: Analysed 400,000 neurons from post-mortem hippocampus samples of people aged from infants (<1 year) to 78 years.
    • Methodology: Used single nuclei RNA sequencing with machine learning to detect signs of new cells.
    • Outcome: Validated with RNAscope and Xenium imaging, which confirmed the presence of neural stem cells, progenitors, and young neurons (neuroblasts) even in adolescent and adult brains.

    Why are the findings important?

    • Evidence in Adults: Strong proof that new neurons form in adult brains, not just in early years.
    • Evolutionary Insight: Suggests neurogenesis is a conserved feature across mammals, not unique to certain species.
    • Brain Functions: Explains memory flexibility, ability to overwrite memories, and resilience to stress.
    • Therapeutic Potential: Opens up scope for regenerative treatments in brain disorders like Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and dementia by stimulating local progenitor cells.
    • Lifestyle Link: Implies that exercise, social connections, and stress levels could influence how much neurogenesis happens in individuals.
    [UPSC 2024] Which one of the following is synthesised in human body that dilates blood vessels and increases blood flow?

    Options: (a) Nitric oxide* (b) Nitrous oxide (c) Nitrogen dioxide (d) Nitrogen pentoxide

     

  • WHO’s Model List of Essential Medicines (EML)

    Why in the News?

    Semaglutide, a drug originally developed for type 2 diabetes but also highly effective for weight reduction has been added to the WHO’s Model List of Essential Medicines (EML).

    What is Semaglutide?

    • Overview: A GLP-1 receptor agonist drug developed for Type 2 Diabetes, also effective in weight reduction.
    • Mode of Action: Stimulates insulin secretion, lowers blood glucose, slows gastric emptying, and suppresses appetite.
    • Brand Names: Ozempic (diabetes), Wegovy (obesity/weight loss).
    • WHO Recognition (2025): Added to the 24th EML, highlighting its dual role in diabetes and obesity management.
    • Significance: Its inclusion pressures health systems to expand access and make it more affordable worldwide.
    • Relevance for India: With 100+ million diabetics (2nd highest globally) and a rising obesity burden, Semaglutide could be a public health game-changer if affordability improves.

    About WHO’s Model List of Essential Medicines (EML):

    • What is it: A global reference by WHO listing the most effective, safe, and essential medicines for priority healthcare needs.
    • History: First introduced in 1977 to improve access in developing countries; updated every 2 years by a WHO Expert Committee.
    • Structure:
      • Core list: Basic medicines usable with limited infrastructure.
      • Complementary list:  Need specialised training, facilities, or are costlier.
    • Global Impact: Over 150 countries use EML to build national lists for procurement, reimbursement, and universal health coverage (UHC).
    • Selection Criteria:
      • Public health relevance.
      • Proven efficacy and safety.
      • Cost-effectiveness compared to alternatives.
      • Quality, stability, and reliable formulations.
      • Preference for single-compound formulations unless combinations are better.
    [UPSC 2024] In which of the following are hydrogels used?

    1. Controlled drug delivery in patients 2. Mobile air-conditioning systems 3. Preparation of industrial lubricants

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*

     

  • ‘Blood Moon’ and Lunar Eclipse

    Why in the News?

    Viewers across Asia, Australia, and parts of Africa witnessed a Blood Moon on 8th September, a spectacular form of total lunar eclipse visible.

    About Lunar Eclipse:

    • Overview: Happens when Earth comes between Sun and Moon, blocking sunlight from reaching the Moon.
    • Earth’s Shadow:
      • Umbra: Dark central shadow, causes total or partial eclipses.
      • Penumbra: Outer shadow, causes faint dimming.
    • Types:
      1. Total Eclipse: Moon passes fully through umbra.
      2. Partial Eclipse: Only part of Moon enters umbra.
      3. Penumbral Eclipse: Moon passes through penumbra with subtle darkening.
    • Frequency: Occurs 2–4 times per year, visible from different regions.

    Why lunar eclipse don’t occur every month?

    : Lunar eclipses don’t happen every month because the Moon’s orbit around the Earth is tilted by about 5 degrees relative to the Earth’s orbit around the Sun. This tilt, known as orbital inclination, means that during a full Moon, the Moon often passes above or below Earth’s shadow, preventing a perfect alignment required for an eclipse. Eclipses only occur when the alignment is precise, allowing the Sun, Earth, and Moon to line up in a straight line.

    What is Blood Moon?

    • Meaning: Refers to the reddish glow of the Moon during a total lunar eclipse.
    • Cause: Rayleigh scattering in Earth’s atmosphere.
      • Short wavelengths (blue, violet) scatter away.
      • Longer wavelengths (red, orange) bend around Earth and light the Moon.
    • Colour Intensity:
      • Presence of dust, aerosols, volcanic ash deepens the red shade.
      • Cleaner atmosphere produces a lighter red or orange.
    • Historical Insight: Medieval records of Blood Moons helped identify volcanic eruptions between 1100–1300 CE, confirmed by a 2023 University of Geneva study.

    Significance:

    • Scientific: Acts as a natural indicator of atmospheric composition, dust, and pollution; helps model planetary atmospheres.
    • Historical/Environmental: Provides evidence of past volcanic events and climate conditions.
    • Cultural: Linked to myths and superstitions, though harmless scientifically.
    • Public Engagement: Widely followed celestial event that aids astronomy outreach and awareness.
    [UPSC 2019] On 21st June, the Sun

    Options: (a) does not set below the horizon at the Arctic Circle*

    (b) does not set below the horizon at Antarctic Circle

    (c) shines vertically overhead at noon on the Equator

    (d) shines vertically overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn

     

  • New Horizons and Stellar Parallax Navigation

    Why in the News?

    A recent study has showcased that spacecrafts can locate themselves using a simple stellar parallax method with just two nearby stars, without relying on Earth.

    New Horizons and Stellar Parallax Navigation

    What is Stellar Parallax?

    • Overview: Stellar parallax is the apparent shift in a star’s position against background stars when observed from two different vantage points.
    • Example: On Earth, this is measured every 6 months as the planet moves to opposite sides of its orbit.
    • Parallax Angle: The degree of this shift gives the star’s distance. Larger parallax means the star is closer.
    • Application in Space: By observing stars from both Earth and a spacecraft (billions of km apart), the relative positions can be compared to calculate the spacecraft’s distance.

    About the New Horizons Demonstration:

    • Spacecraft: Launched in 2006, New Horizons explored Pluto (2015) and is now beyond 60 AU (astronomical units).
    • Observation: On April 23, 2020, astronomers measured parallaxes of Proxima Centauri (4.2 light years) and Wolf 359 (7.9 light years) using Earth-based telescopes and New Horizons’ onboard instruments.
    • Results:
      • Proxima’s parallax: 32.4 arcseconds
      • Wolf 359’s parallax: 15.7 arcseconds
      • Derived spacecraft position: 46.89 AU, matching DSN’s 47.11 AU reading.
    • Requirements: Only a camera, onboard computer, and stellar catalogue — no special equipment needed.

    Significance:

    • Self-sufficient Navigation: Enables spacecraft to calculate their position without depending solely on Earth-based radio signals.
    • For Future Missions: Particularly useful for interstellar missions, where Earth’s beacons won’t be practical.
    • Simplicity: Unlike more complex astrometric navigation or pulsar navigation, this method is accessible with minimal hardware.
    • Educational Value: Though not precise enough yet for real-time navigation, it is a proof of concept for deep-space autonomy.
    [UPSC 2012] A person stood alone in a desert on a dark night and wanted to reach his village which was situated 5 km east of the point where he was standing. He had no instruments to find the direction, but he located the polestar. The most convenient way now to reach his village is to walk in the:

    Options: (a) direction facing the polestar

    (b) direction opposite to the polestar

    (c) direction keeping the polestar to his left *

    (d) direction keeping the polestar to his right

     

  • RNA–Amino Acid Link clues to Origin of Life

    Why in the News?

    A recent study published in the Nature suggests that simple molecules called aminoacyl-thiols may have helped amino acids stick to RNA (ribonucleic acid) without enzymes, giving clues to how protein-making began on early Earth.

    About the RNA–Amino Acid Link:

    • Discovery: Study showed that aminoacyl-thiols (simple prebiotic molecules) can attach amino acids to RNA directly (aminoacylation) without enzymes.
    • Modern Parallel: In cells today, this is done by aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases before ribosomes build proteins. This created the “chicken-and-egg problem”: proteins are needed to make proteins.
    • Chemical Mechanism:
      • Thioesters: Enable amino acids to attach to RNA (“charging RNA”).
      • Thioacids: Enable amino acids to link into peptides.
    • Robustness: Works at neutral pH, across many amino acids, with unexpected selectivity for RNA despite other molecules being more reactive.

    Significance for Origin of Life:

    • RNA World Hypothesis: Supports the idea that RNA and amino acids interacted directly before enzymes evolved.
    • Chemical Advantage: Shows RNA had a natural edge in early Earth conditions, explaining its central role in life’s origin.
    • Prebiotic Plausibility: Aminoacyl-thiols could form from simple nitriles and thiols, and reactions occurred even in cold/frozen pools resembling early Earth.
    • Evolutionary Pathway: Suggests life began with short peptides, with RNA later evolving control, leading to coded protein synthesis and ribosomes.
    [UPSC 2022] Consider the following statements : DNA Barcoding can be a tool to:

    1. assess the age of a plant or animal.

    2. distinguish among species that look alike.

    3. identify undesirable animal or plant materials in processed foods.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct ?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 2 (d) 2 and 3*

     

  • Thunderbird Reactor and Cold Fusion Research (2025)

    Why in the News?

    Cold fusion reaction, once dismissed after failed 1989 claims, is back in discussion as US-based researchers report neutron production from their small “Thunderbird Reactor.”

    Thunderbird Reactor and Cold Fusion Research (2025)

    What is Cold Fusion Reaction?

    • Overview: A proposed way to achieve nuclear fusion at room temperature, unlike conventional fusion which needs extremely high heat (100 million °C or more).
    • How it started: In 1989, two chemists, Martin Fleischmann and Stanley Pons, said their palladium-heavy water experiment created more heat than normal chemistry allows.
    • Problem: Other scientists could not reproduce the result. No clear evidence of fusion products (like neutrons or helium) was found. The claim was dismissed, but the idea stayed alive.
    • Why interest remains: If proven, cold fusion could provide limitless, clean, and cheap energy. Research in this area is now called Low-Energy Nuclear Reactions (LENR).

    About the Thunderbird Reactor (2025)

    • Inception: Scientists led by Curtis Berlinguette, University of British Columbia, published in Nature (Aug 2025).
    • Why built: Not to make electricity, but to test if chemistry can affect nuclear reactions.
    • How it works:
      • A plasma thruster shoots deuterium ions (a form of hydrogen) at a palladium metal target.
      • At the same time, an electrochemical cell pushes more deuterium into the palladium.
      • This builds up a very high density of deuterium inside the metal, making fusion more likely.
      • A neutron detector checks if fusion really happens.

    Key Findings:

    • Neutrons detected: When deuterium ions hit palladium, about 130–140 neutrons per second were observed (much higher than background levels).
    • Electrolysis boost: Adding extra deuterium through electrolysis increased the neutron count further.
    • Energy output: The reaction only produced a tiny amount of power (one-billionth of a watt) while consuming 15 watts of electricity. No net energy gain yet.
    [UPSC 2016] India is an important member of the ‘International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor’. If this experiment succeeds, what is the immediate advantage for India?

    Options: (a) It can use thorium in place of uranium for power generation

    (b) It attain a global role in satellite-navigation

    (c) It can drastically improve the efficiency of its fission reactors in power generation

    (d) It can build fusion reactors for power generation*

     

  • [pib] PRATUSH Mission

    Why in the News?

    Raman Research Institute (RRI) has devised the Probing ReionizATion of the Universe using Signal from Hydrogen (PRATUSH) Telescope to study the “Cosmic Dawn” by detecting radio signals from neutral hydrogen gas.

    About the PRATUSH Mission:

    • Developer: Designed by the Raman Research Institute (RRI), Bengaluru, an autonomous institute under the Department of Science and Technology (DST).
    • Main Goal: To study the Cosmic Dawn – the period when the first stars and galaxies formed – by detecting the faint 21-cm radio signal from neutral hydrogen.
    • Why from the Moon? On Earth, these signals get lost due to radio noise (like FM signals) and atmospheric distortions. The lunar far side is the quietest place in the inner Solar System for radio astronomy, making it the best site.
    • Scientific Importance: Will help scientists understand how the first stars heated and ionized hydrogen gas, how the early Universe changed, and may even give clues about dark matter and fundamental physics.

    Key Features:

    • Compact Design: Small, lightweight, low-power, and cost-effective – in line with the global trend of miniaturized space instruments.
    • Digital Receiver System:
      • Uses a single-board computer (like Raspberry Pi prototype).
      • Equipped with FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array) for high-speed radio data processing.
    • How it Works:
      • Antenna collects faint hydrogen signals.
      • Analog receiver amplifies them.
      • Digital receiver + FPGA convert them into detailed spectral fingerprints of sky brightness.
    • Test Results: Lab trials (352 hours) showed extremely low noise (few millikelvins), proving it can detect faint cosmic signals.
    • SWaP Advantage: Optimized for Size, Weight, and Power (SWaP), making it highly suitable for space deployment.
    [UPSC 2010]  In the context of space technology, what is Bhuvan, recently in the news?

    Options:

    (a) A mini satellite launched by ISRO for promoting the distance education in India

    (b) The name given to the next Moon Impact Probe, for Chandrayaan-II

    (c) A geoportal of ISRO with 3D imaging capabilities of India *

    (d) A space telescope developed by ISRO

     

  • NASA-ESA Solar Orbiter Mission

    Why in the News?

    The NASA-ESA Solar Orbiter Mission has recently traced the origin of Solar Energetic Electrons (SEE), advancing knowledge of solar activity and space weather.

    NASA-ESA Solar Orbiter Mission

    About NASA–ESA Solar Orbiter Mission:

    • Launch & Cost: Launched in Feb 2020 on an Atlas V from Cape Canaveral; joint ESA–NASA mission worth $1.5 billion.
    • Duration: Primary mission till 2026, extendable to 2030.
    • Orbit: Highly eccentric, approaching 0.28 AU (inside Mercury’s orbit); gradually tilts to image Sun’s poles.
    • Payload: 10 instruments — both in-situ (solar wind, magnetic fields, particles) and remote sensing (imaging, spectroscopy).
    • Firsts & Objectives: First to image solar poles; aims to study solar wind origin, solar cycle dynamics, causes of flares/CMEs, and their impact on heliosphere & space weather.

    What are Solar Energetic Electrons (SEE)?

    • What are they: Streams of high-energy electrons released into space, travelling across the heliosphere.
    • Sources: Emerge from solar flares (sudden surface bursts) and coronal mass ejections (CMEs) (plasma + magnetic eruptions).
    • Patterns: Release not always immediate; often delayed by hours due to turbulence/scattering in interplanetary medium.
    • Solar Orbiter Observations: Detected 300+ bursts (2020–22), clearly linking SEE to solar flares/CMEs for the first time.

    Significance of the recent findings:

    • Science: Clarifies Sun’s particle acceleration mechanisms.
    • Space Weather: CMEs are the main drivers of severe events — affecting satellites, GPS, communication, power grids, and astronaut safety.
    • Practical Utility: Improves solar storm forecasting and early-warning systems for infrastructure & human spaceflight.
    • Long Term Implications: Expected to revolutionise solar physics and our predictive capacity of Sun–Earth interactions.
    [UPSC 2022] If a major solar storm (solar flare) reaches the Earth, which of the following are the possible effects on the Earth?

    1. GPS and navigation systems could fail.

    2. Tsunamis could occur at equatorial regions.

    3. Power grids could be damaged.

    4. Intense auroras could occur over much of the Earth.

    5. Forest fires could take place over much of the planet.

    6. Orbits of the satellites could be disturbed.

    7. Shortwave radio communication of the aircraft flying over polar regions could be interrupted.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1, 2, 4 and 5 only (b) 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 only (c) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7* only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7

     

  • Jarosite in Kutch: India’s Mars Analogue Site

    Why in the News?

    Matanomadh in Kutch, Gujarat, with jarosite deposits like those on Mars, is being considered by ISRO as a test site for future Mars missions.

    What is Jarosite?

    • Composition: A yellow, iron-rich sulphate mineral containing iron, sulphur, oxygen, and potassium.
    • Formation: Develops when volcanic ash or sulphur-bearing minerals chemically react with water, making it a marker of past water–rock interaction.
    • Discovery in India: Reported in 2016 at Matanomadh, Kutch (Gujarat) by ISRO’s Space Applications Centre; also found at Varkala cliffs, Kerala. Kutch is more suitable for planetary research.
    • Martian Link: Detected in 2004 by NASA’s Opportunity Rover. This referred as terrestrial clone of Martian surface.
    • Global Occurrence: Found in Mexico, Spain, Canada, Japan, and the USA (Utah, California), all serving as Mars analogue sites.

    Matanomadh’s Significance for Mars Study:

    • Mars Analogue Value: Geological dating shows deposits about 55 million years old (Paleocene period), resembling early Martian conditions.
    • Test Bed for ISRO: Provides ground for testing rover mobility, drilling systems, geochemical studies, and remote sensing for Mangalyaan-2 and future missions.
    • Astrobiology Potential: Since jarosite can trap organic molecules, it helps in shaping strategies to search for signs of past life on Mars.
    • Complement to Ladakh: While Ladakh sites simulate Martian climate, Matanomadh represents Martian geology and mineralogy, creating a comprehensive Mars-analogue ecosystem in India.
    • Conservation Importance: Facing threats from waterlogging and coal mining; scientists urge its declaration as a Planetary Geo-heritage Site.
    • Strategic Edge: Strengthens India’s role in planetary exploration, astrobiology research, and international collaborations.
    [UPSC 2016] Consider the following statements:

    1. The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO

    2. is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission

    3. made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA

    4. made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit the Mars in its very first attempt

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only   (b) 2 and 3 only   (c) 1 and 3 only * (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Kulasekarapattinam Launch Complex

    Why in the News?

    ISRO Chairman V. Narayanan announced that the upcoming rocket launching site at Kulasekarapattinam (Tamil Nadu) will handle 20–25 satellite launches annually.

    Kulasekarapattinam Launch Complex

    About Kulasekarapattinam Spaceport:

    • Location: Coastal hamlet near Tiruchendur, Thoothukudi district, Tamil Nadu; inaugurated by PM in February 2024.
    • Second Spaceport: India’s second spaceport after Satish Dhawan Space Centre (Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh, 1971).
    • Capacity: Can handle 20–25 launches annually, including 24 launches using a Mobile Launch Structure.
    • Focus: Dedicated to Small Satellite Launch Vehicles (SSLVs), with capacity to launch rockets up to 500 kg.
    • Facilities: About 35 facilities including launch pad, rocket integration units, ground range, checkout systems, and Mobile Launch Structure with onboard checkout computers.

    Advantages offered by Kulasekarapattinam Spaceport:

    • Direct Southward Launches: Location allows launches into the Indian Ocean without crossing landmasses; ensures more safety from debris fall.
    • No Dogleg Manoeuvre: Unlike Sriharikota, no detour is needed to avoid Sri Lanka, saving fuel.
    • Efficient Trajectory: Improves efficiency for satellites in Sun-Synchronous Polar Orbits (SSPOs).
    • Payload Advantage: SSLVs from Kulasekarapattinam can place ~300 kg into SSPO, higher than from Sriharikota.
    • Decongestion: Reduces pressure on Sriharikota, which will focus on larger PSLV, GSLV, and Gaganyaan launches.
    • Commercial Boost: Strengthens India’s role in the global small-satellite launch market, enhancing space economy.
    • Strategic Advantage: Near-equator position provides benefits for certain orbital paths.
    [UPSC 2008] ISRO successfully conducted a rocket test using cryogenic engines in the year 2007. Where is the test-stand used for the purpose, located?

    Options: (a) Balasore (b) Thiruvananthapuram (c) Mahendragiri* (d) Karwar