GS Paper: GS1-07. Role of women and women’s organization, population and associated issues, poverty and developmental issues.

“I measure the progress of a community by the degree of progress which women have achieved.” – Dr. B.R. Ambedkar

Major women movements in India

Anti-Sati Movement led by Raja Ram Mohan Roy.

Satyashodhak Samaj led by Savitribai and Jyotirao Phule pioneered female education

Anti-Dowry Campaigns (1980s)- Led by groups like Mahila Dakshata Samiti

Women’s Indian Association first to demand women’s suffrage

SEWA – Founded by Ela Bhatt, organized women in SHG and trade unions

Mathura Rape Case Protest (1979-80)- led to first major amendment in Rape Laws

Triple Talaq Movement led by the Bharatiya Muslim Mahila Andolan (BMMA)

Chipko Movement- Led by women like Gaura Devi

Navdanya Movement (Vandana Shiva) – empowers women to preserve biodiversity and seeds

#MeToo Movement – against sexual harassment at workplace

However, they failed to address the issues of women of lower strata

It failed to recognise the triple burden of discrimination (intersection of Caste, Class, and Gender) as it treated “Woman” as a monolithic category. Eg- Hatras rape case

Intersection of gender and religious marginalization was weakly addressed. Eg- Muslim women’s socio-economic exclusion received less attention beyond advocacy of UCC and Triple Talaq

Leadership and agenda dominated by elite women – Early focus on legal reforms like dowry and workplace equality over survival issues like hunger and wage security.

Limited focus on informal and unpaid work – Eg- more focuses on “glass ceilings” in corporate offices, neglecting agricultural laborers. (Over 90% of Dalit women work in the unorganized sector.)

Urban bias in issues and mobilization – Eg- Rural women’s access to drinking water, fuelwood, and sanitation remained peripheral.

Inadequate engagement with tribal women’s concerns – Development-induced displacement received limited feminist mobilization.

Neglect of women issues in conflict zones – Eg- Women in Kashmir and the Northeast did not become sustained focal points of mainstream movements.

Dependence on NGO-ization and donor agendas – Project-driven advocacy replaced mass mobilization among poor women.

Educational Exclusion- Elite feminism focuses on “STEM representation,” while lower-strata women struggle with basic literacy and school dropouts.

Health Disparities- feminist debates revolve around “reproductive choice” (abortion rights), while marginalized women face lack of basic maternal healthcare.

Language Barrier- Feminist discourse is largely in English, creating a “vocabulary of exclusion” for rural, non-English speaking women.

Digital Divide- “Hashtag Activism” (#MeToo) failed to reach rural women due to digital illiteracy.

Counter-Argument- Positive Impacts on the Lower Strata

Grassroots Political Entry- Eg- women representation in PRIs stands at 46%

SHGs- NABARD-led SHG movement has empowered millions of rural women through micro-credit and financial literacy. Eg- Kudumbshree in Kerala

Legal empowerment-

SC/ST Prevention of Atrocities Act.

Right to temple entry after Sabrimala Verdict

Triple Talaq ban

Anti-Liquor Movements led by poor women to save household income and reduce domestic abuse. Eg- Arrack Movement in Nellore, Andhra Pradesh

Eco-Feminism- Chipko Movement was essentially a struggle by rural women for their daily fuel and fodder resources.

Labor Reforms- SEWA model has successfully unionized thousands of street vendors and ragpickers.

Dalit Feminism- rise of autonomous groups like the National Federation of Dalit Women (NFDW).

Way Forward

Adopting an “Intersectionality Lens” that acknowledges caste and class alongside gender in every policy.

Caste-Gender Sensitivity Training for police and judiciary

Mainstreaming Gender Budgeting

De-NGO-ization – Revive grassroots feminist politics.

Only by embracing a “Bahujan Feminism” can the movement fulfill Ambedkar’s vision of a truly progressive and equal society.

“There is no tool for development more effective than the empowerment of women.” – Kofi Annan

The 1994 Cairo International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD), moved the focus of population policy away from “target-driven” approach to “rights-based” empowerment.

Inverse Correlation of Education and TFR – According to NFHS-5 (2021-23), women with no schooling have a TFR of 2.8, while those with 12+ years of schooling have a TFR of 1.8.

The “Kerala Model” shows that high female literacy leads to low Infant Mortality Rates (IMR), reducing the need for “extra” children as insurance.

Economic Independence – Working women prioritise quality of life over large families.

As women enter the formal workforce, the “Opportunity Cost” of child-rearing in terms of lost wages and career progression rises, leading to preference for smaller families.

Delay in Age of Marriage shortens the biological fertility window. Eg- average age of marriage for women with professional degrees is 27 years.

Greater Birth Spacing awareness among educated and employed women

Digital literacy allows women to access family planning information and tele-health services privately, bypassing social taboos.

Enhanced Reproductive Agency – Amartya Sen argues that “Women’s Agency” is more effective than any state-mandated policy, as it transforms women into active decision-makers.

Breakdown of Traditional Gender Roles – Empowerment challenges the notion that a woman’s primary value is reproductive and also reduces Son Preference

Global Precedence – Bangladesh’s success in dropping TFR from 6.7 in 1960 to 2.1 in 2017 was driven by micro-finance and female education.

Increase in Political Participation of Women – Women leaders prioritise health, education, and family welfare.

Challenges to this Approach

Persistent “Son Meta-Preference”

Prevalence of child marriage – 23.3% of women were married before age 18 years. (NFHS-5)

Stigmatization of male sterilization. Eg- 37.9% of women undergoing sterilization compared to only 0.3% of men. (NFHS-5)

Religious and Cultural Dogma – In certain conservative pockets, empowerment is viewed as an “attack on tradition,” leading to resistance against family planning.

Lack of Old-Age Social Security for informal sector workers – children are seen as “economic assets” for old age

Structural Barriers in Healthcare – Rural Health Statistics report shows a 75%% shortage of female gynecologists in Community Health Centers (CHCs).

Dual Burden – women spend 300% more time on unpaid care work than men (Time Use Survey).

Sustainable population control will emerge not from coercion, but from choice, dignity, and equality for women. This can be achieved through

Promoting Male Engagement

Universal old-age pension

Entrepreneurship under Stand-up India

Empowering ASHA workers