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GS Paper: GS2

  • “Besides being a moral imperative of a Welfare State, primary health structure is a necessary precondition for sustainable development.” Analyse.(150 words)

    The Directive Principles of State Policy (Articles 38, 39, 42, and 47) mandate the State to ensure the health and well-being of all citizens.

    Moral Imperative of the Welfare State

    Right to Health forms part of Article 21 (Right to Life)

    Ensuring accessible, affordable, and equitable healthcare upholds social justice and human dignity.

    Primary healthcare represents state accountability towards vulnerable groups, fulfilling the ethos of “Sabka Saath, Sabka Vikas.”

    Reduces out of pocket expenditure and vicious cycle of poverty

    Primary Health as a Precondition for Sustainable Development

    SDG-3 emphasizes ensuring healthy lives and well-being for all.

    Social Development – Reduces disease burden, enhances productivity, and improves quality of life. Eg- Reduction in IMR (24) and MMR (97)

    Economic Development – World Bank (2023):

    Strong primary healthcare ensures better productivity, improved livelihoods, and universal healthcare access.

    Institutional Sustainability – Strengthens local governance and community participation in health planning. Eg- ASHA workers

    Supported by the Astana Declaration and National Health Policy 2017, which envisions comprehensive and affordable healthcare.

    Key Challenges

    India spends only 1.9% of GDP on healthcare (Economic Survey 2024), far below the WHO’s recommendation of 2.5%.

    Overemphasis on tertiary care- only 15% of public funds go to primary care

    Human resource shortage: Shortfall of 76% doctors at PHCs (RHS 2023).

    Urban-Rural Disparities (Spatial Inequity) – only 33% of doctors and 25% of hospital beds in rural areas.

    Way Forward

    Increase Public Health Expenditure to 2.5% of GDP as per National Health Policy 2017.

    Decentralize Planning and Monitoring via Panchayati Raj Institutions. (Kerala Model)

    Strengthen ASHAs, ANMs, and geriatric caregivers at village level.

    Use of telemedicine (eSanjeevani) and digital records for continuum of care.

    Strong primary and preventive healthcare is essential to achieve equitable and sustainable development and achieve Viksit Bharat @2047.

  • “Earn while you learn’ scheme needs to be strengthened to make vocational education and skill training meaningful.” Comment. (150 words)

    India’s demographic dividend can be fully realized only through quality skill development. The scheme provides students opportunities for on-the-job training and financial independence.

    Significance of the Scheme

    Bridging Education-Employment Gap: (55% employability)

    Promoting Financial Inclusion: Encourages economically weaker students to continue education.

    Industry-Ready Workforce: Provides hands-on skills needed for job readiness and entrepreneurship.

    Encouraging Dignity of Labour: Changes social perception towards blue-collar jobs.

    Education – College drop-out rates can come down.

    Exposure and experience- To their subject and field.

    Inculcate soft skills, business acumen in students.

    Challenges in Implementation

    Limited Industry – academia Linkages

    Vocational education is often treated as inferior to mainstream courses.

    Lack of Standardization: Weak alignment with National Skill Qualification Framework (NSQF).

    Funding Constraints: Poor financial incentives for students and industries to participate.

    Monitoring and Quality Issues: Weak oversight of apprenticeships and training outcomes.

    Gender Disparities due to mobility constraints, safety concerns, and societal norms

    Way Forward

    Strengthen Industry-Academia Linkages: Implement the Dual System of Training (DST) as in Germany.

    Integrate with PMKVY and National Skill Development Mission for convergence.

    Incentivize Employers: Tax benefits and recognition for industries providing apprenticeship.

    Embed Life Skills & Entrepreneurship Training to enhance employability.

    The ‘Earn While You Learn’ model embodies the vision of NEP 2020 and SDG-4 by promoting skill-based, inclusive education. “Skilling is building a better India. ” – PM Narendra Modi

  • Can the vicious cycle of gender inequality, poverty and malnutrition be broken through microfinancing of women SHGs? Explain with examples.

    Microfinance, channelled through women-led SHGs, offers a transformative pathway by enhancing economic agency, social empowerment, and nutritional security.

    The Vicious Cycle

    Gender Inequality – Women’s lack of access to education, income, and decision-making.

    Poverty – Limited income and savings reduce food security and healthcare access.

    Malnutrition – Poor maternal nutrition and child health perpetuate intergenerational poverty.

    How Microfinance via Women SHGs Breaks the Cycle

    Economic Empowerment Reduces Poverty

    Access to Collateral-Free Credit: Enables women to invest in productive activities (livestock, handicrafts, food processing).

    Eg- Jeevika (Bihar) lifted over 1 crore women from subsistence to sustainable livelihoods, raising family incomes by 30%.

    Financial Inclusion Strengthens Decision-Making

    SHGs enhance financial literacy, savings, and bargaining power in households. Eg- Kudumbashree (Kerala) – women’s collective income used for improved household nutrition and sanitation.

    Social Capital – SHGs build trust, networks, and solidarity, empowering women to demand better services (PDS, ICDS, health).

    Women’s Role in Nutrition and Food Security

    Empowered women spend up to 90% of income on family well-being (UNDP).

    SHG-linked programs like Poshan Sakhi (NRLM) and Livelihood Mission Nutrition Gardens promote dietary diversity.

    Reducing Gender Inequality through Economic Agency – Women gain voice and mobility, shifting from dependents to decision-makers. Eg- Lakhpati Didi initiative (2023) targets 2 crore women

    Challenges

    High Interest Rates: MFIs often charge 20-24%, burdening the poor.

    “Missing Middle” finance trap – they outgrow microcredit but cannot access medium-scale loans.

    Regional Imbalance: Concentration of SHGs in southern states (71%); weak in the north and northeast.

    Limited Market Access: Lack of integration with value chains and formal markets.

    Poor Financial Management – Irregular bookkeeping, misappropriation of funds, and lack of audit systems result in low creditworthiness.

    Patriarchal Resistance – In many regions, especially in North India, SHGs are viewed as token collectives rather than serious economic actors.

    Way Forward

    Develop Market Linkages: Integrate SHGs with ONDC, GeM, and e-NAM for fair pricing and wider market access.

    Interest Subvention and Credit Expansion: Strengthen access to MUDRA, PMEGP, and Stand-Up India for low-interest enterprise loans.

    Regional Diversification: Replicate best practices from Kudumbashree and Jeevika in less-developed regions.

    Social Empowerment Convergence: Link SHGs with Poshan Abhiyaan, PMAY-G, and Ujjwala Yojana for holistic welfare outcomes.

    Monitoring and Transparency: Use digital dashboards under DAY-NRLM to track financial performance and social outcomes.

    SHGs can help shift beneficiary-based welfare to participatory empowerment, aligning with the vision of Nari Shakti & SDG 5.

    .

  • “If the last few decades were of Asia’s growth story, the next few are expected to be of Africa’s.” In the light of this statement, examine India’s influence in Africa in recent years.

    Africa is emerging as the next frontier of global growth, driven by its demography, market, and natural resources.

    Asia’s Growth Story

    Asia’s share in global GDP rose from 25% (1990) to 45% (2024)

    Intra-Asian trade accounts for 60% of total exports (ADB, 2024).

    Demographic Dividend- Asia houses 60% of global population; India’s median age – 28 years

    Technological Hubs- India’s IT sector, China’s manufacturing, and ASEAN’s digital economies.

    Regional Platforms- Success of ASEAN, RCEP, and ADB

    Why the Next Few Decades Could Belong to Africa

    Demographic Potential- Africa to host 25% of global population by 2050, with the youngest median age (19 years).

    Resource Abundance- Rich reserves of critical minerals (lithium, cobalt, platinum) vital for energy transition.

    Economic Growth- Sub-Saharan Africa projected to grow at 4.0% annually (IMF, 2024-2030) – led by Nigeria, Kenya, Ethiopia.

    Regional Integration- African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) connects 1.3 billion people across 54 nations.

    Digital Leapfrogging- Africa’s fintech sector expanding by 30% CAGR, supported by Indian investments in Airtel Africa and UPI collaborations.

    India’s Influence in Africa- Examination

    Way Forward

    Develop an integrated “India-Africa Strategy 2030”

    Expand Diplomatic Footprint – increase frequency of high-level summits and ministerial dialogues

    Capacity Building 2.0- Expand ITEC 2.0 for emerging fields like AI, climate tech, and fintech.

    As PM Modi said at IAFS 2015, “Our partnership is beyond strategic – it is human-centric, empowering, and future-facing.”

  • “The USA is facing an existential threat in the form of a China, that is much more challenging than the erstwhile Soviet Union.” Explain.

    In the words of Henry Kissinger, “The Soviet Union was a military threat, China is a civilizational challenge.”

    Limitations of Challenges from erstwhile Soviet Union

    Primarily Military and Ideological – Eg- communism and Cuban Missile Crisis

    Limited economic challenges – contributing less than 10% to global GDP.

    The USSR lagged behind in high-tech industries, focusing mainly on defense and space.

    Limited soft power compared to the USA. Eg- Hollywood

    The Soviet threat was largely European and nuclear, with limited maritime reach in Indo-Pacific

    However, Chinese threat is Existential as

    Geopolitical Dimension

    China projects an alternative governance and development model of authoritarian capitalism

    Indo-Pacific expansion- Strategic assertion in South China Sea, Taiwan Strait, and Indian Ocean directly contests US-led regional order. Eg- boiling frog strategy

    Geo-Economic Dimension

    Parallel institutional ecosystem- Creation of AIIB, NDB, and BRI undermines US-dominated Bretton Woods institutions.

    Integrated global economy leading to complex interdependence- 18% of world GDP, major supplier in 70% of global supply chains.

    Debt Trap diplomacy through BRI loans and surplus-deficit strategies. Eg- Sri Lanka

    Technological rivalry- Leads in AI, 5G, EVs, and green manufacturing, challenging US corporate and innovation supremacy.

    Trade imbalance- Persistent US trade deficit with China (~$350 billion).

    China’s yuan internationalisation and digital currency pilot aim to reduce dollar dominance.

    Defence and Security Dimension

    PLA modernisation (Blue Water Navy) – A2/AD (Anti-Access/Area Denial) and hypersonic capabilities, threaten US naval superiority.

    China’s growing nuclear triad and cyber warfare capacity. Eg- Huawei ban in USA

    Dual-use infrastructure- Eg- BRI ports and bases (Djibouti, Gwadar).

    Multilateralism and Institutional Order

    Global South outreach through BRICS, SCO, and G77, eroding US soft power among developing nations.

    Issue-based coalitions- Unlike USSR’s bloc politics, China uses flexible, interest-based partnerships (e.g., with EU on climate, with Russia on energy).

    Connectivity and Global Influence

    Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)- Encompasses 150+ countries, linking Asia, Africa, and Europe

    Digital Silk Road- Expands China’s control over global telecom, satellite, and internet infrastructure

    Steps Taken by USA to Counter China

    Indo-Pacific Pivot Strategy for Free and Open Indo-Pacific (FOIP)

    QUAD Revitalisation for strategic balancing

    AUKUS Pact (2021) with Australia and the UK– sharing of nuclear submarine technology.

    Trade Restrictions and Tariffs

    Friendshoring with countries like India, Vietnam for supply chain diversification

    Indo-Pacific Economic Framework (IPEF, 2022)

    Blue Dot Network (with Japan and Australia) for transparency in global infrastructure projects.

    Increasing freedom of navigation operations (FONOPs) in South China Sea

    As held by Alexander, “China will astonish the world when it rises out of slumber.” Sustained strategic competition without conflict is essential to avoid future global instability and ensure peace.

  • “Pressure groups play a vital role in influencing public policy making in India.” Explain how the business associations contribute to public policies.

    Pressure groups are organized associations that seek to influence government policies without contesting elections. Samuel H. Finer calls them “Invisible empires”

    Vital Role of Pressure Groups

    Agents of Political Modernization and Socialization

    Interest Articulation – Eg- Farmer Unions

    Facilitates Social Progress – Eg- Eg- NAZ Foundation’s fight against Section 377.

    Enables Constructive Participation (‘safety-valve’ outlet)

    Future political leadership – Eg- Arvind Kejriwal (earlier part of IAC campaign)

    Role of Business Associations in Public Policies

    Policy Advocacy and Lobbying- Eg- ASSOCHAM lobbied for GST simplification and corporate tax reduction (2019).

    Research Support – Provide expert input, data, and feedback. Eg- pre-budget consultations with CII and FICCI

    Act as implementing partners for national missions. Eg- CII-NSDC collaboration under Skill India Mission.

    International Economic Diplomacy – Facilitate trade forums, business summits, and global investor meets. Eg- opposition to RCEP

    Legal and Regulatory Influence – Push for ease of compliance and regulatory clarity. Eg- ASSOCHAM provided feedback for Companies (Amendment) Act, 2020.

    Promoting Responsible and Inclusive Growth through CSR and ESG norms.

    Provide a platform for consultations for key issues like industrial revolution 4.0 etc.

    Challenges

    Elite Bias – limited representation for MSMEs, startups, and informal sector.

    Fragmentation due to multiple bodies (CII, FICCI, ASSOCHAM, NASSCOM) lead to overlapping agendas and diluted influence.

    Regulatory Capture – Eg- Corporate-Politicians-Bureaucracy nexus (Vohra committee)

    Poor Regulation and Secrecy lead to corruption and crony capitalism.

    Way Forward

    “Lobbying Regulation Act” similar to the USA

    Financial Transparency in Functioning

    For Viksit Bharat @2047 business associations must move from protest-based mobilization to knowledge-based engagement with the state.

  • To what extent, in your view, the Parliament is able to ensure accountability of the executive in India?

    The Parliament of India is the supreme instrument of democratic accountability. Under Article 75(3) of the Constitution, the Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha

    Parliament ensuring accountability of the executive

    Question Hour – Enables MPs to question ministers and expose administrative lapses

    Zero Hour – Allows MPs to raise urgent matters of public importance without prior notice.

    Adjournment and Censure Motions – Hold the executive accountable on specific issues of public or national concern.

    No-Confidence Motion – Tests the majority support of the government and can lead to its fall if lost.

    Budgetary Control (Articles 112-114) – power of the purse by approving or rejecting demands for grants.

    Cut Motions to reduce or disapprove government expenditure, signalling disapproval of policy.

    Parliamentary Committees

    Public Accounts Committee (PAC) – Examines CAG reports and ensures post-audit accountability (e.g., 2G and coal scam scrutiny).

    Estimates Committee – Evaluates government expenditure efficiency.

    DRSCs) in-depth scrutiny of ministries.

    Joint Parliamentary Committees (JPCs) – Eg- Waqf Amendment Bill

    Parliamentary Privileges – Allow MPs to speak freely and fearlessly, enhancing deliberative accountability.

    Issues with parliamentary form of government

    Decline in the number of sittings- The 17th Lok Sabha sat for only 55 days

    Frequent Disruptions and Adjournments due to protests and unruly behavior, leading to wasted time and resources.

    Low Productivity- Eg- the 2023 winter session saw significant disruptions, resulting in the suspension of over 140 MPs and hindering legislative business.

    Inadequate Discussion- 58% of the Bills were passed within two weeks of their introduction in 17th LS. Eg- J&K Reorganisation Bill, 2019, and the Women’s Reservation Bill, 2023 were passed within two days

    About 31% of the total functioning time in Lok Sabha, and 32% in Rajya Sabha was spent on discussions other than legislation and budgets. Eg- President’s Address to Parliament, matters of public importance, and trust votes.

    Between 2019 and 2023, about 80% of the Budget was passed without discussion, and in 2023, the entire Budget was approved without debate.

    Rise Legislation through Ordinances bypassing the usual legislative process.

    Along with ‘maximum governance, there needs to be ‘maximum accountability’, which must start with an empowered and effective Parliament.

  • ‘Constitutional Morality’ is rooted in the Constitution itself and is founded on its essential facets. Explain the doctrine of ‘Constitutional Morality’ with the help of relevant judicial decisions. (150 words)

    Constitutional morality implies adherence to the core principles and spirit of the Constitution in a democracy.

    As per George Grote, it involves

    Paramount reverence for forms and procedures of the Constitution.

    Adherence to law while enabling open criticism of authority.

    Need for public reason, self-restraint, and trust in institutions.

    Essential Facets and Roots within the Constitution

    Preamble – It acts as the moral compass, explicitly mandating the preservation of justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity.

    Fundamental Rights – Protect dignity, autonomy, equality. Eg – Navtej Johar (2018) decriminalised homosexuality.

    DPSPs – Provide moral compass for social and economic justice.

    Institutional Checks & Balances – Separation of powers, judicial review, federalism. Eg – Kesavananda Bharati (1973) upheld Basic Structure.

    Democratic Processes – Free elections, executive accountability, judicial independence.

    Judicial Decisions

    Kesavananda Bharati (1973)- Upheld Basic Structure as a reflection of constitutional morality above political majority.

    Naz Foundation (2009, Delhi HC)- Asserted constitutional morality over public morality in striking down Sec. 377 IPC (later affirmed in Navtej Johar).

    Navtej Singh Johar (2018)- SC decriminalized homosexuality, stating constitutional morality must prevail over majority opinion.

    Sabarimala case (2018)- Affirmed women’s entry in temples on grounds of constitutional morality and gender equality.

    Government of NCT of Delhi v. Union of India (2018) – SC held that constitutional morality ensures cooperative federalism and prevents concentration of power in the hands of one authority.

    Joseph Shine v. Union of India (2018) – struck down Section 497 IPC (Adultery) as discriminatory, invoking constitutional morality to protect individual dignity and autonomy.

    Constitutional morality is the soul of Indian democracy. As Rajeev Bhargava notes, it embodies a form of constitutional patriotism that enables unity in diversity while upholding pluralism

  • Discuss the desirability of greater representation to women in the higher judiciary to ensure diversity, equity and inclusiveness.

    “Indian Judiciary is not only guardian of the Constitution but also Active Participants in the Social Revolution.” – J.L. Nehru. Greater women representation in the judiciary is essential for this vision.

    Desirability of Greater Representation

    Constitutional Imperative – Fulfils Articles 14, 15(3), and 39A, ensuring equal opportunity and access to justice for all.

    Corrects Historical Imbalance- Addresses structural and institutional barriers in legal and judicial careers.

    Diversity of Perspective – Women judges bring unique social insights, empathy, and lived experiences, enriching judicial reasoning and deliberation.

    Gender-Sensitive Adjudication – Enhances sensitivity in matters of sexual violence, family law, and gender rights. Eg- Justice Indu Malhotra’s dissent in Sabarimala (2018).

    Enhances Legitimacy and Public Trust – A judiciary reflective of society’s diversity strengthens citizen confidence in judicial impartiality.

    Democratization of Judiciary – Promotes inclusive representation across gender, class, and region, aligning with democratic ideals.

    Global Democratic Benchmark – Countries like Canada and the UK have achieved near gender parity, improving judicial balance and inclusivity.

    Role-Model Effect – Inspires women in the legal profession, helping address underrepresentation in senior judicial positions.

    “There is no better test of the excellence of government than the working of its judicial system.” – Lord Bryce. The true measure of that excellence lies in Gender Equality in Judiciary.

  • How have the recommendations of the 14th Finance Commission of India enabled the States to improve their fiscal position?

    The Constitution of India envisages the Finance Commission under Article 280 as the ‘balancing wheel of fiscal federalism’ in India.

    Key Recommendations & Impact

    Tax Devolution Raised to 42% – Increased untied resources, enhanced fiscal autonomy.

    Reduced Dependence on Central Grants – Gave States more predictable, formula-based transfers.

    Greater Spending Autonomy – Fewer tied schemes allowed States to set local priorities.

    Plan vs Non-Plan Expenditure removed – Simplified budgeting, better fiscal management.

    Incentives for Fiscal Discipline – FRBM compliance encouraged prudent debt management.

    Support to Local Bodies – Higher allocations improved grassroots fiscal health.

    Special Grants for Environment & Judiciary – Helped States strengthen governance and green initiatives.

    GST Compensation Mechanism (recommended later) – Protected States from revenue loss during tax transition.

    Positive Impact

    Strengthened fiscal federalism

    Improved fiscal indicators of states

    Encouraged competitive federalism

    Concerns

    Rise in Cesses & Surcharges – Cesses & surcharges rising from 12.8% (2015-20) to 18.5% (2020-24).

    States’ effective share shrank – Fell from 35% (2015-20) to ~31% (2020-24) of Centre’s gross tax revenue.

    GST Compensation Delays – Especially during COVID, strained States’ finances.

    Reduced Central Grants – Decline in discretionary and plan-based transfers cut flexibility.

    Borrowing Restrictions (Art. 293, FRBM) – Limited States’ ability to raise resources.

    High Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS) – Continued tied funds reduced States’ expenditure autonomy.

    Way Forward

    Increase Devolution to 50% under 16th FC.

    Include Cess/Surcharge in divisible pool

    Restructure CSS – Consolidate into fewer umbrella schemes

    As the Punchhi Commission noted, “true federalism requires fiscal autonomy alongside political autonomy.”