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GS Paper: GS2

  • US Withdraws from UNFCCC and IPCC

    Why in the News?

    US President Donald Trump has signed a presidential memorandum withdrawing the United States from 66 international organisations, including the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). This makes the US the first country to formally exit the UNFCCC.

    United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

    The UNFCCC is the foundational global treaty that governs international cooperation on climate change. It provides the legal and institutional framework under which global climate negotiations take place.

    Established

    • Adopted in 1992 at the Rio Earth Summit
    • Entered into force in 1994
    • Nearly universal membership among UN countries

    Key role

    • Organises annual Conference of Parties (COP) climate negotiations
    • Hosts the Paris Agreement, which aims to limit global warming
    • Establishes systems for
      • Emissions reporting
      • Transparency and accountability
      • Climate finance mechanisms
      • Carbon markets and rule making

    Legal implications of US withdrawal

    • Withdrawal takes effect one year after formal notice
    • Exit from UNFCCC automatically means exit from the Paris Agreement
    • US will no longer be a Party to COP negotiations
    • Can attend meetings only as an observer, without bargaining rights

    Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

    The IPCC is the UN body that assesses and synthesises global scientific research on climate change, its impacts, and mitigation and adaptation options.

    Functions

    • Produces comprehensive assessment reports
    • Provides scientific benchmarks for climate negotiations
    • Informs global and national climate policy

    Impact of US exit

    • Reduces US influence over global climate science assessments
    • Limits formal nomination of US experts to IPCC author teams
    • US scientists may still contribute as reviewers or through non government nominations
    [2009] The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international treaty drawn at: 

    (a) United Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm, 1972 

    (b) UN Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, 1992 

    (c) World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, 2002 

    (d) UN Climate Change Conference, Copenhagen, 2009

  • India Bangladesh Ganga Water Sharing Treaty (1996)

    Why in the News?

    Senior officials from the Union Jal Shakti Ministry visited Farakka Barrage as the India–Bangladesh Ganga Water Sharing Treaty is set to expire in December 2026, ahead of renewal discussions between India and Bangladesh.

     About 

    • A bilateral treaty governing the sharing of Ganga (Ganges) river waters between India and Bangladesh during the dry season, with regulated releases at Farakka Barrage in West Bengal
    • Signed on 12 December 1996
    • Valid for 30 years
    • Renewable by mutual consent
    • Downstream monitoring at Hardinge Bridge in Bangladesh

    Background

    • Dry season water disputes date back to the 1950s
    • Interim arrangements were signed in 1977, 1982, and 1985
    • The 1996 treaty introduced a stable, rule based and long term framework for cooperation

    Key features

    • Ten day sharing schedule (January to May): Water allocation based on a formula using historical average flows from 1949 to 1988
    • Low flow consultation clause: If river flow falls below 50,000 cusecs in any ten day period, immediate bilateral consultation is required
    • Minimum release assurance: India ensures downstream releases, allowing limited withdrawals up to 200 cusecs for reasonable uses between Farakka and the Bangladesh border
    • Joint Committee mechanism: Equal representation from both countries. Daily monitoring at Farakka and Hardinge Bridge. Annual reports on implementation and dispute resolution
    • Review and renewal: Review every five years or earlier if necessary. Renewal only by mutual agreement.
    [2017] With reference to river Teesta, consider the following statements: 

    1. The source of river Teesta is the same as that of Brahmaputra but it flows through Sikkim. 

    2. River Rangeet originates in Sikkim and it is a tributary of river Teesta

    3. River Teesta flows into Bay of Bengal on the border of India and Bangladesh

    Which of the statements given above is/ are correct? 

    (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • 79th Foundation Day of Bureau of Indian Standards 

    Why in the News?

    The 79th Foundation Day of the Bureau of Indian Standards was celebrated, where the Union Minister highlighted BIS’s transition from a regulatory role to a facilitative and enabling institution, aligned with ease of doing business and promotion of a quality culture.

    Bureau of Indian Standards

    • India’s National Standards Body
    • Responsible for standardisation, certification, hallmarking, and quality assurance
    • Protects consumer interests and enhances global competitiveness of Indian products

    Establishment and Legal Framework

    • Established in 1987
    • Came into force on 1 April 1987
    • Governed by the BIS Act, 2016
    • Headquarters at New Delhi

    Historical Evolution

    • 1947 Indian Standards Institution established
    • 1952 to 1956 ISI Certification Marks Scheme launched
    • 1987 ISI transformed into BIS with expanded mandate
    • 2016 BIS Act strengthened consumer participation and international alignment

    Significance

    • Strengthens quality infrastructure in India
    • Supports Make in India and export competitiveness
    • Promotes consumer safety and trust
    • Aligns Indian standards with global best practices

    Prelims Pointers

    • BIS is India’s national standards authority
    • ISI mark originated before BIS
    • BIS Act 2016 expanded consumer role
    • Hallmarking is mandatory for precious metals
    • Digital standardisation is a recent reform focus
    [2017] Consider the following statements: 

    1. The Standard Mark of Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) is mandatory for automotive tyres and tubes

    2. AGMARK is a quality Certification Mark issued by the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO)

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

  • [7th January 2026] The Hindu OpED: At a crossroads: On Iran’s unrest, its re-engagement with the world

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2018] In what ways would the ongoing US-Iran Nuclear Pact Controversy affect the national interest of India? How should India respond to this situation?

    Linkage: It falls under GS II-Effect of policies and politics of developed countries on India’s interests, focusing on sanctions, energy security, strategic autonomy, and West Asia stability. Iran’s unrest and economic collapse show how the U.S.-Iran nuclear dispute disrupts regional stability and directly affects India’s energy security and connectivity interests.

    Mentor’s Comment

    Iran is witnessing its most serious internal crisis since the 2022-23 unrest, marked by economic collapse, mass protests, and renewed geopolitical pressure. The current phase of instability is unfolding in the immediate aftermath of a brief but intense war with Israel and amid heightened U.S. coercive posturing. This editorial examines how domestic economic fragility, external pressures, and governance constraints have converged to place Iran at a critical crossroads. Here repression risks deepening instability, and reform coupled with global re-engagement remains the only viable exit.

    Why in the News?

    Iran is facing its largest nationwide protests since the 2022-23 Mahsa Amini unrest, triggered initially by a strike by Tehran shopkeepers on December 28 against the sharp collapse of the Iranian rial. What makes this moment significant is the convergence of economic freefall, post-war vulnerability, and overt foreign signalling, including claims by Israel’s Mossad of field-level presence and explicit U.S. threats of force. At least 12 protest-related deaths have been reported within a week, underscoring the scale and volatility of the crisis.

    Introduction

    Iran’s current unrest is not an episodic protest cycle but a manifestation of structural economic decay and political rigidity. The collapse of the rial, runaway food inflation, declining oil revenues, and daily power outages have eroded regime legitimacy. While President Masoud Pezeshkian has signalled limited social relaxation, especially on morality policing, his administration remains constrained on economic reform and national security. The state’s reliance on repression and attribution of unrest to foreign interference risks aggravating an already combustible situation.

    What triggered the current wave of protests?

    1. Currency Collapse: Sharp fall in the Iranian rial since the June 2025 war directly affected traders and households, triggering the initial strike.
    2. Economic Shock Transmission: Trader unrest rapidly expanded into nationwide protests, indicating deep-rooted economic distress beyond urban commercial classes.
    3. Continuity with Past Unrest: Represents the largest mobilization since the Mahsa Amini-led protests of 2022-23, signalling unresolved grievances.

    How severe is Iran’s current economic crisis?

    1. Food Inflation: Reached 64% in October, the second highest globally after South Sudan, indicating acute cost-of-living stress.
    2. Currency Devaluation: Rial has lost 60% of its value since the June 2025 war, eroding savings and purchasing power.
    3. Oil Export Decline: 2025 oil exports fell by ~7% compared to the 2024 average, tightening fiscal space.
    4. Energy Shortages: Daily power outages have become routine, reflecting infrastructure stress and governance failure.

    How is post-war geopolitics amplifying domestic instability?

    1. War Aftermath: The unrest comes six months after a 12-day Iran-Israel war, which already strained Iran’s economy and security apparatus.
    2. Israeli Signalling: Mossad publicly claimed operational presence “in the field” with protesters, intensifying regime paranoia.
    3. U.S. Threat Posture: U.S. President Donald Trump warned on January 2 that the U.S. was “locked and loaded” to use force if protesters were killed.
    4. External Pressure Effect: Foreign threats have reinforced regime defensiveness while worsening civilian suffering.

    How is the Iranian state responding internally?

    1. Repression: Security warnings against “rioters” and reported deaths indicate reliance on coercive control.
    2. Limited Social Relaxation: President Pezeshkian has relaxed morality police enforcement, signalling tactical social easing.
    3. Economic Paralysis: The President admitted in December that the government was “stuck” and incapable of performing “miracles”.
    4. Blame Externalisation: Default regime response continues to attribute crises to foreign interference.

    Why is repression proving counterproductive?

    1. Cycle of Crisis: Economic deterioration combined with repression is reinforcing instability rather than restoring order.
    2. Public Anger Reservoir: Years of shrinking economic opportunity and erosion of political and personal freedoms have accumulated latent discontent.
    3. Ideological Fatigue: Religion and nationalism are no longer sufficient buffers against economic hardship.
    4. Legitimacy Erosion: Persistent hardship weakens the regime’s social contract and coercive credibility.

    What path does the editorial suggest forward?

    1. Domestic Reform: Calls for tackling corruption and initiating meaningful economic reform.
    2. Empowering Moderates: Urges external actors to engage and empower President Pezeshkian, not undermine him.
    3. Re-engagement with the World: Emphasises that isolation and coercion deepen instability.
    4. Strategic Restraint: Warns against threats issued on Israel’s behalf, which harden regime paranoia.

    Value Addition: Regional and Global Political Impact of Iran’s Imbroglio

    Impact on the Middle East

    1. Regional Power Balance: Weakens Iran’s capacity to project influence across Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, and Yemen, altering the regional balance vis-à-vis Israel and Gulf Arab states.
    2. Proxy Network Stress: Economic strain constrains Iran’s ability to sustain allied non-state actors, increasing volatility and fragmentation within proxy theatres.
    3. Escalation Risks: External pressure combined with internal unrest raises incentives for diversionary foreign policy actions, heightening conflict risks in the Gulf and Levant.
    4. Israel-Iran Confrontation: Mossad’s public signalling and Iran’s internal vulnerability increase the likelihood of covert and overt escalatory cycles.
    5. Gulf Security Architecture: Reinforces security anxieties among Gulf Cooperation Council states, accelerating defence alignment and external security dependence.

    Impact on India

    1. Energy Security: Iran’s instability and sanctions-related disruptions affect global oil supply dynamics, exposing India to price volatility and import uncertainty.
    2. Connectivity Projects: Political instability undermines strategic projects such as Chabahar port, affecting India’s access to Afghanistan and Central Asia.
    3. Strategic Autonomy: Intensified U.S.-Iran tensions constrain India’s diplomatic space, complicating balanced engagement with West Asia, Israel, and the U.S.
    4. Diaspora and Trade: Regional instability increases risks for Indian diaspora, remittances, and trade flows across the Gulf region.
    5. Regional Stability Interest: Sustained unrest weakens India’s vision of a stable West Asia essential for economic and maritime security.

    Impact on the Global Order

    1. Sanctions Fatigue: Highlights the limits of coercive economic tools, demonstrating how prolonged sanctions can erode civilian welfare without political moderation.
    2. Norms of Intervention: U.S. threats of force linked to internal unrest blur lines between humanitarian concern and strategic coercion.
    3. Energy Markets: Iran-related instability contributes to structural volatility in global energy markets, affecting inflation and growth worldwide.
    4. Multipolar Contestation: Iran’s crisis becomes another arena for great-power signalling, deepening geopolitical fragmentation.
    5. Authoritarian Resilience Debate: Raises questions about the sustainability of repression-led governance under prolonged economic stress.

    Conclusion

    Iran’s current unrest reflects a convergence of economic collapse, governance rigidity, and external pressure. Continued reliance on repression and isolation risks deepening internal instability and regional spillovers. Sustainable stability lies in economic reform, political accommodation, and calibrated international re-engagement rather than coercive containment.

  • The Chinese are using ambiguity on the LAC and unsettles borders as a pressure point against us

    Introduction

    The Line of Actual Control is not a mutually demarcated boundary but a result of differing historical perceptions. China has progressively shifted from negotiating boundary clarification to leveraging uncertainty to alter ground realities. This strategy enables incremental territorial assertion without triggering full-scale conflict, fundamentally altering the nature of India-China border management.

    Why in the news?

    India-China border tensions persist despite multiple agreements and disengagement talks, underscoring a deeper structural problem: the absence of a mutually accepted alignment of the LAC. China is no longer merely disputing territory but strategically weaponising ambiguity itself. Unlike earlier periods where border negotiations aimed at eventual settlement, China now treats unsettled borders as a permanent pressure lever, enabling coercion below the threshold of war. This marks a sharp departure from confidence-building frameworks established since the 1990s and highlights a major failure of past assumptions that economic engagement would moderate China’s territorial behaviour.

    How did the LAC originate and why does ambiguity persist?

    1. Historical Construction: The LAC emerged after the 1962 conflict as a de facto line reflecting troop positions rather than a legally negotiated boundary.
    2. Divergent Interpretations: China interprets the LAC using selective historical maps, while India relies on watershed principles and traditional usage.
    3. Absence of Final Alignment: No exchange of mutually accepted maps has occurred for the entire LAC, particularly in the Western and Eastern sectors.
    4. Strategic Utility of Ambiguity: China benefits from uncertainty, as clarity would constrain its manoeuvrability on the ground.

    How has China operationalised ambiguity as a strategic tool?

    1. Grey-Zone Operations: Incremental troop movements, patrol obstruction, and infrastructure build-up alter facts without overt combat.
    2. Salami-Slicing Tactics: Small, cumulative actions avoid escalation while steadily shifting the status quo.
    3. Denial of Disengagement: China accepts disengagement in principle but resists restoration of pre-2020 positions.
    4. Psychological Pressure: Persistent friction imposes military, economic, and diplomatic costs on India.

    Why is Arunachal Pradesh central to China’s claim strategy?

    1. Rejection of McMahon Line: China contests the eastern boundary despite historical acceptance by Tibet’s representatives.
    2. Political Rebranding: Use of alternative nomenclature seeks to delegitimise India’s sovereignty claims.
    3. Diplomatic Signalling: Repeated objections to Indian infrastructure and political activities reinforce claims.
    4. Negotiation Leverage: Eastern sector claims are used to extract concessions elsewhere.

    What role have border agreements played and why have they failed?

    1. 1993 and 1996 Agreements: Established peace and tranquillity but avoided boundary clarification.
    2. Confidence-Building Focus: Emphasised troop restraint rather than territorial settlement.
    3. Breakdown Post-2020: Galwan clashes exposed the fragility of trust-based arrangements.
    4. Structural Limitation: Agreements regulate behaviour but do not resolve competing perceptions of the LAC.

    How has India responded to China’s pressure strategy?

    1. Firm Rejection of Claims: India has consistently rejected Chinese assertions in Arunachal Pradesh.
    2. Infrastructure Development: Accelerated border roads and logistics to reduce asymmetry.
    3. Military Posture Adjustment: Forward deployment and sustained presence across friction points.
    4. Diplomatic Signalling: Insistence on restoration of status quo ante as a prerequisite for normalisation.

    Conclusion

    The continued absence of a clearly delineated Line of Actual Control has transformed the India-China boundary from a negotiable dispute into a strategic pressure instrument. China’s deliberate exploitation of ambiguity has weakened confidence-building mechanisms and normalised coercion below the threshold of war. For India, effective border management now requires not only military preparedness and infrastructure development but also sustained diplomatic firmness anchored in restoration of the status quo and long-term boundary clarity.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2020] Analyze internal security threats and transborder crimes along Myanmar, Bangladesh and Pakistan borders including Line of Control (LoC). Also discuss the role played by various security forces in this regard. 

    Linkage: UPSC has repeatedly asked questions on border area management and transborder security threats, particularly along the LoC and international borders. In the current context, the LAC has emerged as an equally critical security frontier, where China’s use of ambiguity and grey-zone pressure mirrors the management of persistent, low-intensity threats without escalation.

  • Greenland Sovereignty and US Interest 

    Why in the News?

    Greenland, an autonomous territory of Denmark, has rejected renewed remarks by Donald Trump on taking over the island. Greenland’s Prime Minister Jens-Frederik Nielsen stated that citizens should not fear an imminent American annexation, while European powers reaffirmed support for Greenland’s sovereignty.

    Political Status of Greenland

    • World’s largest island
    • Population around 57,000
    • Autonomous territory within the Kingdom of Denmark
    • Controls internal affairs, while defence and foreign policy remain with Denmark
    • Not an independent NATO member, but covered under Denmark’s NATO membership

    Strategic Importance of Greenland

    • Located between Europe and North America
    • Critical for US ballistic missile defence systems
    • Part of the Arctic region, gaining importance due to climate change
    • Rich in critical minerals and rare earth elements
    • Important for reducing dependence on Chinese mineral supply chains

    International Law Angle

    • Territorial sovereignty is a core principle of international law
    • Annexation of another territory without consent violates UN principles
    • NATO is based on collective defence, not internal coercion

    Prelims Pointers

    • Greenland is not an independent country
    • Defence of Greenland is linked to Denmark’s NATO membership
    • Arctic geopolitics is driven by security, minerals, and climate change
    • Public opinion in Greenland strongly opposes US annexation
    [2014] Consider the following countries: 

    1. Denmark 

    2. Japan 

    3. Russian Federation 

    4. United Kingdom 

    5. United States of America 

    Which of the above are the members of the ‘Arctic Council’? 

    (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 3 and 5 only

  • Global Environment Facility Approves New UNEP Projects  

    Why in the News?

    The Global Environment Facility approved US$52.8 million for four new projects led by the United Nations Environment Programme at its 70th Council meeting.

    About Global Environment Facility

    • A multilateral environmental financing mechanism
    • Provides grants and blended finance to developing countries and economies in transition
    • Supports projects that deliver global environmental benefits

    Establishment

    • Established in 1991
    • Created ahead of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit

    Objectives

    • Support country driven projects with global environmental benefits
    • Integrate action on climate change, biodiversity, land degradation, oceans, chemicals and pollution
    • Strengthen environmental governance while promoting sustainable development

    Conventions for Which GEF Serves as Financial Mechanism

    • Convention on Biological Diversity
    • United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
    • United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
    • Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants
    • Minamata Convention on Mercury
    • Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction Agreement

    Significance

    • Largest source of multilateral biodiversity funding globally
    • More than US$26 billion provided in grants
    • Over US$153 billion mobilised in co financing
    • Active in more than 160 countries
    • Contributes to environmental protection along with livelihood improvement

    Prelims Pointers

    • GEF predates the Rio Earth Summit
    • Serves as a financial mechanism for multiple multilateral environmental agreements
    • Works closely with UN agencies including UNEP
    • Focuses on projects with global environmental benefits
    [2014] With reference to ‘Global Environment Facility’, which of the following statements is/are correct? 

    (a) It serves as financial mechanism for ‘Convention on Biological Diversity’ and ‘United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change’

    (b) It undertakes scientific research on environmental issues at global level

    (c) It is an agency under OECD to facilitate the transfer of technology and funds to underdeveloped countries with specific aim to protect their environment

    (d) Both (a) and (b)

  • [6th January 2026] The Hindu OpED: The parallel track that keeps U.S.-India ties going

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2020] What is the significance of Indo- US defence deals over Indo-Russian defence deals? Discuss with reference to stability in the Indo- Pacific region.

    Linkage: The article explains how India-U.S. ties are sustained through defence frameworks, interoperability agreements, and technology cooperation despite political volatility. This directly aligns with UPSC’s focus on Indo-US defence cooperation as a pillar of Indo-Pacific stability beyond transactional diplomacy.

    Mentor’s Comment

    India-U.S. relations in 2025 face political strains from global realignments, trade frictions, and shifting great-power equations. However, this article highlights a crucial but under-discussed dimension: the parallel institutional track that sustains bilateral ties despite diplomatic or political turbulence. For UPSC aspirants, this article offers insight into how institutional resilience, defence frameworks, and bureaucratic continuity stabilize strategic partnerships in an uncertain global order.

    Why in the News

    Despite the postponement of the Quad Leaders’ Summit hosted by India in 2025 and visible geopolitical stressors, such as renewed U.S.-China engagement and India’s strained relations with Pakistan, the India-U.S. partnership continues to deepen. This contrast between political volatility and institutional continuity is significant. Defence agreements, logistics frameworks, technology cooperation, and infrastructure initiatives have not only expanded but accelerated. The signing of a decade-long Defence Framework Agreement (2025) and the conduct of 24 India-Pacific ports engagements in one year underscore the scale and durability of cooperation, making this a critical case study in resilient diplomacy.

    Introduction

    India-U.S. relations have historically oscillated with political leadership and global alignments. The post-2008 period marked a structural shift, embedding cooperation within institutional, defence, and technological frameworks. In 2025, even as political optics suggest strain, the relationship advances through parallel institutional mechanisms that insulate strategic cooperation from short-term disruptions.

    How have political headwinds tested India-U.S. relations in 2025?

    1. Geopolitical Strain: Quad Leaders’ Summit postponement reflects regional uncertainty and diplomatic caution.
    2. China Factor: Renewed U.S.-China engagement alters India’s strategic calculus and perceptions of a “G-2” dynamic.
    3. Trade Frictions: Persistent U.S. tariff pressures on Indian exports highlight unresolved economic tensions.
    4. Regional Instability: India’s conflictual ties with Pakistan continue to complicate South Asian security equations.

    Why does institutional cooperation continue despite political volatility?

    1. Institutional Engagement: Accelerated bureaucratic and military coordination offsets leadership-level uncertainties.
    2. Foreign Ministers’ Dialogue (July 2025): Expanded cooperation across maritime security, humanitarian assistance, and counter-terrorism.
    3. Quad Counterterrorism Working Group: Demonstrated operational relevance beyond diplomatic symbolism.
    4. Policy Continuity: Bureaucratic frameworks ensure momentum independent of electoral or diplomatic cycles.

    How does defence cooperation form the backbone of bilateral ties?

    1. Civil Nuclear Legacy (2008): Established trust and enabled subsequent defence and technology agreements.
    2. Defence Framework Agreement (2025-2035): Enhances joint planning, coordination, and regional security alignment.
    3. Foundational Agreements:
      1. LEMOA (2016): Enables reciprocal logistics access.
      2. COMCASA (2018): Secures communication interoperability.
      3. BECA (2020): Facilitates geospatial intelligence sharing.
    4. Defence Trade Expansion: HAL’s $1-billion GE-414 engine deal reflects deepening industrial cooperation.

    What role do military exercises and interoperability play?

    1. Joint Exercises: Yudh Abhyas, Tiger Claw, and Malabar strengthen operational trust.
    2. Interoperability: Enhances coordinated responses in the Indo-Pacific.
    3. Information Sharing: Improves maritime domain awareness and regional stability.
    4. Supply Chain Security: Defence Supply Arrangement (2024) ensures logistics resilience.

    How is technology and infrastructure cooperation expanding the partnership?

    1. Technological Integration: Agreements emphasize defence, digital, and critical technology collaboration.
    2. NISAR Satellite (2025): Joint disaster resilience, agricultural monitoring, and infrastructure planning.
    3. Ports of the Future Conference (Mumbai, 2025):
      1. 24 Indo-Pacific Ports: Enhances resilient, secure port infrastructure.
      2. Logistics and Supply Chains: Supports regional connectivity and crisis preparedness.
    4. Ministerial Coordination: Joint leadership by India’s Ports Ministry and the U.S. State Department.

    What limits and challenges remain within this institutional framework?

    1. Political Volatility: Diplomatic disagreements can slow high-level momentum.
    2. Trade Disputes: Transactional pressures persist despite strategic convergence.
    3. Trust Maintenance: Requires continuous engagement to prevent erosion during crises.
    4. Strategic Divergence: Differing threat perceptions vis-à-vis China remain.

    Conclusion

    India-U.S. relations in 2025 demonstrate that institutional depth can compensate for political uncertainty. Defence, technology, and infrastructure cooperation operate as parallel stabilising tracks, ensuring continuity in an evolving geopolitical landscape. Sustained engagement within these frameworks will determine the partnership’s long-term strategic effectiveness.

  • India Hosts 20th Session of UNESCO ICH Committee  

    Why in the News?

    India is hosting the 20th Session of UNESCO’s Intergovernmental Committee for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage at the Red Fort.

    About the Intergovernmental Committee for Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage

    • A statutory body of UNESCO
    • Established under the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage
    • Responsible for promoting, supervising and implementing safeguarding of intangible cultural heritage worldwide

    India and Intangible Cultural Heritage

    • India currently has 15 elements inscribed on UNESCO’s Representative List
    • Hosting the session reflects India’s growing role in global cultural diplomacy

    About Intangible Cultural Heritage

    • Refers to living traditions and cultural expressions passed through generations
    • Includes performing arts, rituals, festivals, crafts, oral traditions and social practices
    • Emphasises community participation and transmission rather than physical monuments

    Prelims Pointers

    • ICH focuses on living heritage not tangible monuments
    • The Intergovernmental Committee has 24 members
    • No consecutive terms allowed for Committee membership
    • Red Fort is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and ceremonial venue
    [2024] Which one of the following was the latest inclusion in the Intangible Cultural Heritage List of UNESCO? 

    (a) Chhau dance 

    (b) Durga Puja 

    (c) Garba dance 

    (d) Kumbh Mela

  • Exercise Harimau Shakti 2025  

    Why in the News?

    India and Malaysia have commenced the 5th edition of Exercise Harimau Shakti at the Mahajan Field Firing Range in Rajasthan.

    What is Exercise Harimau Shakti

    • A bilateral military training exercise between the Indian Army and the Royal Malaysian Army
    • Aims to strengthen coordination in counter insurgency and peacekeeping operations

    Significance

    • Enhances interoperability between Indian and Malaysian forces
    • Strengthens bilateral defence cooperation and military diplomacy
    • Improves preparedness for United Nations peacekeeping missions
    • Supports safer and more coordinated ground operations in complex environments

    Prelims Pointers

    • Exercise Harimau Shakti is a bilateral army level exercise
    • Focuses on counter insurgency and UN peacekeeping scenarios
    • Conducted on Indian soil for the 2025 edition
    • Involves sub conventional warfare training
    [2024] Joint Military Exercises Question (Excerpted from): Which of the following statements about ‘Exercise Mitra Shakti-2023’ are correct? 

    1. This was a joint military exercise between India and Bangladesh

    2. It commenced in Aundh (Pune)

    3. Joint response during counter-terrorism operations was a goal of this operation

    4. Indian Air Force was a part of this exercise

    Select the answer using the code given below: 

    (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 4 (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4