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GS Paper: GS3

  • Novel Microscope observes Molecular Motion

    Why in the News?

    Over a century after Einstein explained Brownian motion, California Institute of Technology (Caltech) scientists have created a powerful microscope that shows molecules moving in real time at an extremely tiny scale.

    Novel Microscope observes Molecular Motion

    What is Brownian Motion?

    • Definition: Random movement of tiny particles in a fluid due to constant collisions with surrounding molecules.
    • Significance: Validated the existence of atoms and molecules; explained by Albert Einstein in 1905.
    • Particle Behavior: Smaller particles move faster and more erratically; larger ones move slower.

    About Caltech Microscope:  

    • Resolution: Angstrom-level (1 Å = 0.0000000001 m).
    • Speed: Captures hundreds of billions of frames per second.
    • Advantage: Wide-field, single-shot imaging with no sample damage.
    • How It Works?
      • Setup: Fluorescent molecules in water illuminated by ultrafast lasers.
      • Light Capture: Scattered light directed via Digital Micromirror Device.
      • Streak Imaging: Light converted to electron patterns revealing molecular size.
      • Reading Size: Faster changes = smaller molecules; slower = larger.
    [UPSC 2000] Which one of the following can be used to confirm whether drinking water contains a gamma emitting isotope or not?

    Options: (a) Microscope (b) Lead plate (c) Scintillation counter* (d) Spectrophotometer

     

  • Bamboo-Polymer Composite as alternative to Plastics

    Why in the News?

    IIT Guwahati researchers have created a strong, eco-friendly material using bamboo and biodegradable plastic to replace regular plastic in car interiors and other uses.

    About the Bamboo-Polymer Composite:

    • Origin: Made using Bambusa tulda, a fast-growing bamboo from Northeast India.
    • Composition: Reinforced with bio-based and petroleum-based epoxies for strength.
    • Objective: Reduce dependence on synthetic plastics in industrial sectors.
    • Process: Bamboo fibres undergo alkali treatment to bond well with polymers.
    • Evaluation: Tested across 17 parameters—tensile strength, water resistance, cost, etc.

    Key Features and Benefits:

    • High Strength: Suitable for load-bearing automotive components.
    • Thermal Stability: Can withstand high interior vehicle temperatures.
    • Low Moisture Absorption: Ideal for humid environments.
    • Eco-Friendly: Biodegradable, lowers environmental impact.
    • Cost-Effective: ₹4300 per kg—commercially viable.
    • Best Variant: Bamboo + bio-based epoxy FormuLite chosen through performance scoring.

    Applications:

    • Automotive: Dashboards, door panels, seat backs.
    • Electronics & Packaging: Lightweight, durable material.
    • Aerospace: Used for sustainable composite components.
    • Construction: Green alternative for interiors and fixtures.
    [UPSC 2021] Consider the following statements:

    1. Carbon fibres are used in the manufacture of the components used in automobiles and aircrafts.

    2. Carbon fibres once used cannot be recycled.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?”

    Options: (a) 1 only* (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

  • [26th July 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Kargil, Pahalgam and a revamp of the security strategy

    PYQ Relevance:

    [UPSC 2016] The terms ‘Hot Pursuit’ and ‘Surgical Strikes’ are often used in connection with armed action against terrorist attacks. Discuss the strategic impact of such actions.

    Linkage: The article explicitly talks about the India’s shift in counter-terrorism strategy, mentioning the surgical strikes after the Uri attack (2016) and the Balakot strikes (2019) following Pulwama as “a strong reply” and “statement of intent”. The article culminates in discussing Operation Sindoor after the Pahalgam attack (2025), which involved striking terror bases and military air-bases deep in Pakistan, setting a “new threshold” for India’s response to terror.

     

    Mentor’s Comment: This year, in light of the recent Operation Sindoor (May 7–10, 2025), launched by India in response to the Pahalgam terror attack. The operation demonstrated India’s enhanced conventional military strength and shift in counter-terrorism doctrine, drawing parallels with the Kargil War’s legacy of structural reforms, military modernisation, and strategic assertiveness.

    Today’s editorial analyses the Indian Military strength. This topic is important for GS Paper III (Internal Security) in the UPSC mains exam.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    July 26, 2025, marks the 26th anniversary of the Kargil War, a key moment in India’s military history.

    What key shortcomings did Kargil expose?

    • Intelligence Failure: There was a complete lack of actionable intelligence about Pakistani infiltration. Eg: Neither RAW nor military intelligence anticipated the large-scale intrusion in the Kargil sector, resulting in delayed response.
    • Lack of Real-time Surveillance and Reconnaissance: India lacked advanced aerial and satellite surveillance capabilities. Eg: Absence of drone surveillance led to Pakistani troops occupying key heights undetected.
    • Operational Unpreparedness in High-altitude Warfare: Indian troops were not fully equipped or trained for fighting in extreme mountain conditions. Eg: Soldiers lacked snow boots, high-altitude tents, and artillery support during initial engagements.
    • Inadequate Military Modernisation and Logistics: Outdated weaponry and logistical weaknesses slowed the military’s response. Eg: Lack of precision-guided munitions and night-vision equipment hampered operations in the early phase of the conflict.

    How did they influence India’s military reforms?

    • Revamp of the Intelligence Infrastructure: The intelligence failure in Kargil led to the creation of dedicated and tech-enabled intelligence agencies. Eg: Establishment of the Defence Intelligence Agency (DIA) in 2002 and the National Technical Research Organisation (NTRO) in 2004 improved surveillance and early warning systems.
    • Modernisation and Capability Building: Recognising operational gaps, India focused on military modernisation and indigenous defence production. Eg: Induction of Rafale fighters, Apache helicopters, and BrahMos missiles, along with enhanced focus on ‘Make in India’ defence projects.
    • Structural and Doctrinal Reforms: The need for faster, joint response led to organisational restructuring and new doctrines. Eg: Appointment of the Chief of Defence Staff (CDS) in 2019 and development of the Cold Start Doctrineenabled swift, coordinated operations across services.

    How has India’s counter-terror strategy evolved from Kargil to Operation Sindoor?

    • Shift from Strategic Restraint to Active Retaliation: Initially, India responded passively to terror attacks, but now adopts swift and punitive action. Eg: In Operation Sindoor (2025), India launched precision strikes on nine terror bases and eleven military airbases inside Pakistan within 96 hours of the Pahalgam attack.
    • Use of Air Power and Missile Strikes: India has moved beyond surgical ground raids to deep-strike capabilities using air and missile assets. Eg: The BrahMos missile strike on Nur Khan Base in Pakistan reportedly crippled a nuclear weapons storage facility, sending a strong strategic signal.
    • Preemptive and Coordinated Operations: Focus has shifted to pre-empting terror threats through real-time intelligence and coordinated special operations. Eg: In 2023, India conducted a pre-emptive operation in Kashmir’s Gurez sector, dismantling a terror launchpad before infiltration.
    • Internationalising the Terror Narrative: India increasingly leverages diplomacy and global platforms to isolate Pakistan as a state sponsor of terror. Eg: Following the Pulwama attack (2019), India worked with global powers to get Masood Azhar designated as a global terrorist by the UN Security Council.
    • Integration of Technology and Intelligence Networks: There is now enhanced use of surveillance drones, cyber intelligence, and inter-agency coordination. Eg: Operation Black Thunder II (2024) used real-time intelligence sharing between NTRO, RAW, and special forces to eliminate a high-value terrorist in less than two days.

    What are the challenges for India? 

    • Persistent Cross-border Terrorism: Despite reforms, Pakistan-based terror groups continue to pose a threat, using proxy warfare and non-state actors to destabilize regions like Jammu & Kashmir.
    • Cybersecurity Vulnerabilities: India is increasingly vulnerable to cyberattacks on its military, energy, and communication infrastructure by hostile state and non-state actors. Eg: In 2023, a suspected Chinese-origin cyberattack targeted the power grid in Ladakh, exposing gaps in cyber defence preparedness.
    • Delays in Defence Modernisation: The slow pace of procurement, bureaucratic hurdles, and over-dependence on imports affect India’s combat readiness. Eg: Delays in acquiring high-altitude drones and next-generation tanks have impacted operational planning in sensitive border areas like Eastern Ladakh.

    Way forward: 

    • Promote Jointness and Modernisation: Implement integrated theatre commands and upgrade military technology to ensure faster, coordinated responses.
    • Strengthen Border and Cyber Security: Deploy smart surveillance systems and enhance cyber defence to counter both conventional and hybrid threats.

  • The scientist who made ‘mangroves’ a buzzword

    Why in the News?

    World Mangrove Day was observed on July 26. The occasion also recalled the pioneering role of M.S. Swaminathan in promoting mangrove conservation through initiatives like the International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems (ISME), GLOMIS, and the fishbone canal method of restoration.

    Role of M.S. Swaminathan in mangrove conservation

    • As early as 1989, he advocated using mangroves for climate resilience in coastal areas.
    • Proposed developing salinity-tolerant crops (e.g., rice) using mangrove genes.
    • Played a key role in founding the International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems (ISME) in 1990, promoting global knowledge exchange.
    • Co-authored the Charter for Mangroves, which was later included in the World Charter for Nature (1992) by the UN.
    • Led Community-Based Restoration in India through the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF).

    What is the ‘fishbone canal’ method? What are its advantages?

    The method mimics the natural branching pattern of rivers. It allows tidal waters to penetrate deep into degraded mangrove areas. Eg: In Tamil Nadu’s Pichavaram, fishbone canals revived previously stagnant mangrove zones, promoting natural seed dispersal.

    Advantages of the method

    1. Facilitates Natural Regeneration: By improving hydrology, it creates conditions suitable for natural mangrove seedling establishment without extensive manual planting. Eg: In Odisha’s Bhitarkanika, the method led to spontaneous growth of native mangrove species.
    2. Cost-Effective: Compared to large-scale planting, this method is less resource-intensive 
    3. It preserves ecosystem integrity.

    How have global and national initiatives reshaped mangrove management?

    • Shift Towards Community-Based Conservation: Focus has moved from government-led to community-driven models, recognising local knowledge and stakeholder participation. Eg: Eg: Sundarbans’ Joint Forest Committees empower villagers in conservation.
    • Integration with Climate Resilience Strategies: Mangroves are now seen as vital for disaster risk reduction and carbon sequestration. Eg: Indonesia’s “Mangroves for Coastal Resilience” project links mangrove conservation with coastal protection and blue carbon goals.
    • Technological Interventions and Scientific Planning: Use of GIS mapping, remote sensing, and hydrological modelling has made restoration more precise and scalable. Eg: In Andhra Pradesh, the Integrated Coastal Zone Management Project used satellite data to identify degraded mangrove areas for targeted restoration.

    How did India’s mangrove policy evolve post-1980 ?

    • CRZ Inclusion (1991): Mangroves declared ecologically sensitive under CRZ Rules, restricting commercial activity.
    • Post-Tsunami Shift (2004): Indian Ocean Tsunami highlighted mangroves as bio-shields, leading to their inclusion in disaster risk and coastal zone policies.
    • Boost in Support (Post-2005): Initiatives like the National Coastal Mission and remote sensing-based mapping promoted monitoring and restoration.

    What are ISME and GLOMIS?

    • ISME (International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems) is a global non-profit organization founded in 1990 to promote the conservation, restoration, and sustainable use of mangrove ecosystems through research, training, and international cooperation. It also offers technical support and capacity building for sustainable mangrove management.
    • GLOMIS (Global Mangrove Database and Information System), developed by ISME, is a centralized database that provides scientific data, GIS mapping, and case studies to support effective mangrove management and policymaking worldwide. GLOMIS serves as a database for mangrove species, restoration efforts, and GIS data.

    Way forward: 

    • Strengthen Community-Based Restoration: Empower local communities through training, sustainable livelihood support, and participation in restoration using techniques like the ‘fishbone canal’ method for greater ecological success.
    • Leverage Technology and Global Networks: Use remote sensing, GIS, and platforms like GLOMIS for monitoring mangrove health, while collaborating with international bodies like ISME to adopt best global practices.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2019] Discuss the causes of depletion of mangroves and explain their importance in maintaining coastal ecology.

    Linkage: This question is directly and explicitly about mangroves, focusing on two key aspects: their depletion and their importance in maintaining coastal ecology. The fact that such a detailed question appeared in the examination signifies the recognized environmental importance and public awareness surrounding mangroves. A scientist’s work to popularize mangroves would logically contribute to this level of public and academic interest.

  • Ramsar COP15 opens in Zimbabwe

    Why in the News?

    Delegates from 172 countries convened in Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe, for the 15th Meeting of the Conference of the Contracting Parties (COP15) to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.

    Highlights of Ramsar COP15

    • Theme: Protecting Wetlands for Our Common Future
    • Host Nation: Zimbabwe (holds presidency of the Ramsar Convention for 3 years)
    • Expected Outcome: Adoption of the Victoria Falls Declaration, a global framework to protect wetlands

    About the Ramsar Convention:

    • Adopted on: 2 February 1971, in Ramsar, Iran.
    • Objective: Conserve and ensure the wise use of wetlands globally.
    • Key Functions:
      • Identify wetlands of international importance.
      • Promote sustainable management practices.
      • Foster international cooperation in wetland conservation.
    • Governing Body:
      • Conference of the Contracting Parties (COP) meets every 3 years.
      • Reviews implementation, adopts site designations, budgets, and policy actions.
      • Includes member + non-member states, IGOs, and NGOs as observers.

    Criteria for Ramsar Site Designation:

    A wetland must meet at least one of the following 9 criteria:

    1. Unique or rare wetland type.
    2. Habitat for endangered, vulnerable, or endemic species.
    3. Crucial for migratory waterbirds.
    4. High ecological, hydrological, or biodiversity value.
    5. Supports ecosystem services (e.g., flood control, water purification).
    6. Provides cultural or spiritual value.
    7. Serves sustainable community livelihoods.
    8. Holds scientific or educational importance.
    9. Requires global cooperation due to threats.

    India and the Ramsar Convention:

    • Joined on: 1 February 1982.
    • First Ramsar Site: Chilika Lake (Odisha), 1981.
    • As of July 2025:
      • Total sites: 91
      • Total area: ~13.58 lakh hectares
      • % of India’s wetland area under Ramsar: ~10%
    • Top States: Tamil Nadu: 20 sites (highest); Uttar Pradesh: 10 sites
    • Note: India has never chaired a Ramsar COP session.

    Global Snapshot and Other Facts:

    • Total Members: 171 countries.
    • Leading Countries:
      • United Kingdom: 175 sites (most)
      • Mexico: 142 sites
      • Bolivia: Largest area (~1.48 lakh sq. km under protection)
    • World Wetlands Day: Celebrated on 2 February annually.
    • Montreux Record: Register for Ramsar sites under serious threat needing urgent conservation.
    [UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements:

    1. Under Ramsar Convention, it is mandatory on the part of the Government of India to protect and conserve all the wetlands in the territory of India.

    2. The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2010 were framed by the Government of India based on the recommendations of Ramsar Convention.

    3. These Rules also encompass the drainage area or catchment regions of the wetlands as determined by the authority.

    Which of the statements given above is / are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only* (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • 150 years of Jim Corbett

    Why in the News?

    As India marks Jim Corbett’s 150th birth anniversary (1875–2025), it reflects on his legacy as a hunter, naturalist, author, and conservationist—after whom Corbett National Park is named.

    https://www.downtoearth.org.in/wildlife-biodiversity/150-years-of-jim-corbett-will-the-real-carpet-sahib-please-stand-up 

    Who was Jim Corbett?

    • Full Name: Edward James Corbett (1875–1955), nicknamed Carpet Sahib in Kumaon.
    • Profession: British hunter, naturalist, author, and later a wildlife conservationist.
    • Famous Books: Man-Eaters of Kumaon, The Man-Eating Leopard of Rudraprayag, My India, Jungle Lore, Tree Tops.
    • Hunter Turned Hero:
      • Known for tracking and killing man-eating tigers and leopards in Kumaon and Garhwal.
      • Used patient observation and deep knowledge of terrain and animal behaviour.
    • Shift to Conservation:
      • Grew concerned about dwindling tiger numbers and deforestation.
      • Advocated for wildlife protection and ecological balance.
    • Commemoration: India’s first national park was renamed Jim Corbett National Park in 1957 in his honour.

    Back2Basics: Jim Corbett National Park

    • Established: 1936 as Hailey National Park; later renamed in 1957.
    • Location: Nainital district, Uttarakhand; core of Corbett Tiger Reserve.
    • Historical Importance:
      • Launch site of Project Tiger in 1973, India’s flagship tiger conservation programme.
    • Geography:
      • Lies in Shivalik and Outer Himalayan foothills.
      • Rivers: Ramganga, Sonanadi, Mandal, Palain, and Kosi.
      • Area: Over 500 sq km (includes Sonanadi Wildlife Sanctuary as buffer).
    • Biodiversity:
      • Flora: Moist deciduous forest with Sal, Khair, and Sissoo; 600+ plant species.
      • Fauna: Over 230 tigers (highest density in the world), elephants, leopards, deer (sambar, chital, barking), sloth bears, wild boars, birds, and reptiles.

     

    [UPSC 2013] Consider the following pairs : National Park River flowing through the Park

    1. Corbett National Park : Ganga

    2. Kaziranga National Park : Manas

    3. Silent Valley National Park : Kaveri

    Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?

    (a) 1 and 2 (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 (d) None*

     

  • UAV Launched Precision Guided Missile (ULPGM)-V3

    Why in the News?

    DRDO has successfully test-fired the UAV-Launched Precision Guided Missile (ULPGM)-V3.

    UAV Launched Precision Guided Missile (ULPGM)-V3

    About ULPGM-V3:

    • Overview: It is a fire-and-forget air-to-surface missile developed by Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO).
    • Variants: It is an upgraded version of V1 and V2, with improved range, autonomy, and targeting precision.
    • Development: Collaboration by Adani Defence, Bharat Dynamics, Newspace Research Technologies, and over 30 Indian MSMEs/startups.

    Key Features:

    • Weight: 12.5 kg
    • Range: 10 km (day), 2.5 km (night)
    • Accuracy: Passive homing infrared with HD dual-channel accuracy (~10 cm)
    • Warhead Options: Anti-armour, penetration-cum-blast, pre-fragmentation
    • Guidance: Fully autonomous with two-way datalink for mid-course updates
    • Environment: Operates in plains and high-altitude regions, day and night
    [UPSC 2025] With reference to Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), consider the following statements:

    I. All types of UAVs can do vertical landing. II. All types of UAVs can do automated hovering. III. All types of UAVs can use battery only as a source of power supply.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All the three (d) None *

     

  • AdFalciVax Vaccine for Malaria

    Why in the News?

    The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has introduced AdFalciVax, a new malaria vaccine candidate targeting Plasmodium falciparum.

    About AdFalciVax

    • Developer: Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR); private partners will handle trials and manufacturing.
    • Vaccine Type: Chimeric recombinant vaccine targeting Plasmodium falciparum, the deadliest malaria parasite.
    • Technology:
      • Circumsporozoite Protein (CSP): Offers direct protection to the vaccinated individual.
      • Pro6C Protein: A hybrid of Pfs230 and Pfs48/45 that blocks transmission via mosquitoes.
    • Key Advantages
      • Dual Benefit: Provides personal protection and reduces community transmission.
      • Full-length CSP: Promotes a stronger and longer immune response compared to current vaccines.
      • High Efficacy in Animals: Over 90% protection in animal models (human trials pending).
      • Stability: Contains alum as an adjuvant — safe, effective, and stable at room temperature for 9 months.

    Malaria Control in India:

    • Progress:
      • Malaria deaths reduced from 1,151 in 1995 to 83 in 2022 (National Vector Borne Disease Control Programme).
      • World Health Organization estimates are higher (5,511 deaths in 2022).
    • Current Limitation: India’s dominant malaria strain is Plasmodium vivax, which AdFalciVax does not target.

     

    [UPSC 2010] Widespread resistance of malarial parasite to drugs like chloroquine has prompted attempts to develop a malarial vaccine to combat malaria. Why is it difficult to develop an effective malaria vaccine ?

    (a) Malaria is caused by several species of Plasmodium*

    (b) Man does not develop, immunity to malaria during natural infection

    (c) Vaccines can be developed only against bacteria

    (d) Man is only an intermediate host not the definitive host.

     

  • Financial Inclusion Index, 2025

    Why in the News?

    The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has announced that the Financial Inclusion Index (FI-Index) for Financial Year (FY) 2025 has risen to 67.0, up from 64.2 in FY 2024.

    About Financial Inclusion Index (FI-Index):

    • Developer: Created by the Reserve Bank of India to assess the extent of financial inclusion in India.
    • First Release: Published in August 2021 for the financial year ending March 2021.
    • Coverage: Encompasses five key sectors—banking, investments, insurance, postal services, and pensions.
    • Scoring Scale: Ranges from 0 (total exclusion) to 100 (full inclusion).
    • Update Cycle: Updated annually in July; cumulative index with NO base year.
    • Indicators: Based on 97 indicators across all five sectors to ensure comprehensive assessment.
    • Key Parameters:
      1. Access (35%): Measures availability of financial infrastructure like bank branches, automated teller machines, and postal outlets.
      2. Usage (45%): Tracks frequency of use of services like savings, loans, insurance, and pension schemes.
      3. Quality (20%): Assesses financial literacy, consumer protection, equity, and service reliability.

    India’s Performance Over the Years:

    • March 2017: Index at 43.4, reflecting the initial phase of inclusion efforts.
    • March 2021: Rose to 53.9, due to the expansion of banking and digital infrastructure.
    • March 2024: Improved to 64.2, with broader access and increased adoption of financial services.
    • March 2025: Reached 67.0, driven by digital transactions, better service quality, and financial literacy campaigns.
    [UPSC 2016] The establishment of ‘Payment Banks’ is being allowed in India to promote financial inclusion. Which of the following statements is/are correct in this context?

    1. Mobile telephone companies and supermarket chains that are owned and controlled by residents are eligible to be promoters of Payment Banks

    2. Payment Banks can issue both credit cards and debit cards

    3. Payment Banks cannot undertake lending activities

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only* (c) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Coral Loss in Lakshadweep

    Why in the News?

    A 24-year-long study conducted by the Nature Conservation Foundation reveals that coral cover in Lakshadweep has declined by 50% since 1998.

    Coral Decline in Lakshadweep: Key Highlights

    • Study Duration: Based on a 24-year study (1998–2022).
    • Findings: 50% decline in live coral cover—from 37.2% to 19.6%.
    • Main Cause: Repeated marine heatwaves linked to climate change.
    • Study Locations: Monitored across Agatti, Kadmat, and Kavaratti atolls.
    • Response Clusters: Six coral groups identified based on:
      • Depth and wave exposure
      • Heat resistance and recovery patterns
    • Recovery Timeline: Requires at least 6 years without bleaching for healthy regeneration.

    Back2Basics: Corals and Coral Bleaching:

    • About: Corals are colonies of tiny animals called polyps, which build calcium carbonate skeletons.
    • Symbiotic Algae: Host zooxanthellae, microscopic algae that provide nutrients via photosynthesis.
    • Coral Types:
      • Hard Corals: Form reef structures (e.g., brain coral, staghorn coral).
      • Soft Corals: Flexible, grow on reef surfaces but do not build reefs.
    • Habitat Requirements:
      • Water Quality: Must be clean and low in sediment.
      • Temperature Range: Prefer 20–21°C.
      • Depth: Typically found in waters less than 90 metres deep.
      • Salinity: Optimal range is 27–30 parts per thousand (ppt).
      • Ocean Currents: Require nutrient-rich water flow.
    • Coral Bleaching:
      • Cause: Triggered by heat stress, pollution, or acidification, which drive algae out.
      • Effect: Coral turns white due to loss of algae; Loses its main food source. Dies if stress persists for long periods.
    [UPSC 2022] “Biorock Technology” is talked about in which one of the following situations?

    Options: (a) Restoration of damaged coral reefs * (b) Development of building materials using plant residues (c) Identification of areas for exploration/extraction of shale gas  (d) Providing salt licks for wild animals in forests