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GS Paper: GS3

  • [pib] State Energy Efficiency Index, 2024

    Why in the News?

    The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) has released the latest edition of State Energy Efficiency Index 2024 (SEEI 2024).

    About State Energy Efficiency Index (SEEI), 2024:

    • Released by: Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE), Ministry of Power, in association with Alliance for an Energy Efficient Economy (AEEE).
    • Coverage: Assesses 36 States/UTs on energy efficiency performance for FY 2023–24.
    • Framework:
      • 6th edition, implementation-focused.
      • 66 indicators across sectors – Buildings, Industry, Municipal Services, Transport, Agriculture, DISCOMs, Cross-sector.
      • Includes new focus areas: EV adoption, star-rated buildings, Demand Side Management (DSM).
    • Classification:
      • Front Runners (>60%), Achievers (50–60%), Contenders (30–50%), Aspirants (<30%).
      • Top performers: Maharashtra (>15 MToE), Andhra Pradesh (5–15 MToE), Assam (1–5 MToE), Tripura (<1 MToE).
    • Key Highlights:
      • 24 states notified Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC 2017).
      • 31 states adopted EV policies.
      • 13 states promoted solar pumps (Kerala – 74% adoption).
      • All 36 prepared State Energy Efficiency Action Plans (SEEAPs); 31 formed State Energy Transition Committees.
    • Significance: Supports India’s Net Zero 2070 goal by promoting state-level energy transition.

    Back2Basics: Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE):

    • Established: 1 March 2002, under the Energy Conservation Act, 2001.
    • Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Power.
    • Mission: To assist in developing policies & strategies for energy efficiency, with the aim of reducing energy intensity of the Indian economy.
    • Functions:
      • Regulatory: Implementation of Energy Conservation Act provisions.
      • Promotional:  Encourage adoption of efficient technologies & practices.
    • Key Achievements:
      • Contributed to 3.5% reduction in India’s overall energy consumption.
      • Implements programmes like Perform, Achieve, Trade (PAT), Standards & Labelling, Energy Efficiency Financing Platform, etc.
    [UPSC 2016] On which of the following can you find the Bureau of Energy Efficiency Star Label?

    1. Ceiling fans 2. Electric geysers 3. Tubular fluorescent lamps

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*

     

  • Ice Age-era Dragon Fly rediscovered

    Why in the News?

    Odonatologists have reconfirmed the presence of the elusive dragonfly species Crocothemis erythraea in the southern Western Ghats.

    About Crocothemis erythraea Dragonfly:

    • Species Type: A rare dragonfly species, usually found in Europe, Asia, and the Himalayas.
    • Recent Finding: Reconfirmed in the Western Ghats, specifically in Kerala and Tamil Nadu high ranges.
    • Comparison: Closely resembles the common lowland species Crocothemis servilia, leading to earlier misidentifications.
    • Habitat Preference: Inhabits cooler, high-altitude areas above 550 metres.
    • Historical Origin: Likely spread to South India during the Ice Age and survived in montane habitats such as Sholas and grasslands.

    Significance of the Discovery:

    • Biodiversity Insight: Demonstrates how ancient climate changes influenced current biodiversity patterns.
    • Ecological Importance: Reinforces the Western Ghats’ status as a biodiversity hotspot of global value.
    • Conservation Message: Highlights the need to protect sensitive high-altitude habitats like Sholas and montane grasslands.
    • Scientific Contribution: Adds to India’s growing record of documenting and conserving rare species.
    [UPSC 2024] The organisms Cicada, Froghopper and Pond skater are:

    Options: (a) Birds (b) Fish (c) Insects* (d) Reptiles

     

  • Challenges of Monsoon Variability and Disaster Preparedness

    Introduction

    Heavy rains in August 2025 have wreaked havoc across North India, Himachal Pradesh cut off, Jammu and Kashmir reporting over 40 deaths, Punjab’s farmland submerged, and the Yamuna swelling in the capital. The floods highlight the increasing unpredictability of the southwest monsoon, where rainfall comes in concentrated bursts rather than spread across weeks. Beyond the immediate tragedy, this points to systemic governance challenges, unplanned infrastructure in fragile zones, inadequate early warning systems, and a reactive rather than preventive disaster management model.

    Increasing unpredictability of the monsoon

    1. Erraticism of rainfall: Concentrated bursts replace evenly spread rains, overwhelming slopes, rivers, and cities.
    2. Amplified erosion: Short, intense rain accelerates slope destabilisation in Himalayas.
    3. Recurring phenomenon: Evidence now suggests such rainfall patterns are no longer exceptional but likely regular.

    Fragility of Himalayan ecosystems and their weakening

    1. Deforestation and clearance: Forest cover removal and road-widening continue unchecked.
    2. Slope destabilisation: Lack of slope-safe engineering increases landslide risks.
    3. Shrinking catchments: Reduced buffering capacity heightens chances of slope failure and siltation downstream.

    Insufficiency in disaster preparedness

    1. Early warning gaps: Despite better forecasts, reliable ground-level alerts are absent.
    2. Relief over resilience: Agencies mobilise post-damage; pre-positioned supplies and community drills are missing.
    3. Reactive model: Each disaster treated as unforeseeable, ignoring repeated expert warnings.

    Policy choices aggravating vulnerabilities

    1. Strategic projects: Roads and urban expansion pursued in unstable landscapes.
    2. Poor compensatory afforestation: Quality of replanted forests does not match original ecological value.
    3. Climate-resilient infrastructure lag: Development focus prioritises speed over sustainability.

    Shifts required in disaster governance

    1. Shift to preventive strategies: Focus on reducing vulnerabilities before disasters occur.
    2. Systematic preparedness: Regular drills, community participation, and pre-emptive relief stocks.
    3. Balanced growth: Infrastructure that respects ecological fragility and integrates climate resilience.

    Conclusion

    The 2025 floods across North India are not isolated accidents but part of a pattern of climate-driven extreme weather. Treating each calamity as “unprecedented” delays learning and perpetuates cycles of loss. Building resilience means moving beyond post-disaster relief to preventive strategies: sustainable infrastructure, landslide mitigation, community drills, and early-warning systems. Unless governance shifts from reaction to anticipation, monsoon seasons will continue to leave trails of destruction.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2019] Disaster preparedness is the first step in any disaster management process. Explain how hazard zonation mapping will help disaster mitigation in the case of landslides.

    Linkage: The 2025 North India floods highlight how slope destabilisation and unchecked construction in Himalayan States amplify landslide risks. Hazard zonation mapping could have guided slope-safe engineering, restricted high-risk land use, and improved early warning. Thus, it directly connects preparedness to mitigation, aligning with the UPSC 2019 question.

  • United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)

    Why in the News?

    This year marks three decades since the landmark Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, which established the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

    About United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED):

    • Event: Also called the Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (June 3–14, 1992).
    • Participation: 178 countries, 117 heads of state, thousands of NGOs and civil society groups.
    • Objective: Reconcile economic growth with environmental protection, mainstreaming sustainable development globally.
    • Key Outcomes:
      • Rio Declaration (27 principles, including precautionary principle & Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR)).
      • Agenda 21 (non-binding action plan for sustainable development).
      • UNFCCC (binding treaty on climate change; later Kyoto Protocol, Paris Agreement).
      • Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (binding treaty on biodiversity).
      • Statement of Forest Principles (non-binding guidelines for sustainable forests).
      • Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) created to monitor implementation.
    • Significance: Landmark in international environmental diplomacy, embedding sustainability in global policy and leading to follow-ups (Rio+10, Rio+20).

    India and UNCED:

    • Stance & Advocacy:
      • Strongly pushed for Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR); developed nations must bear greater responsibility due to historical emissions and resource use.
      • Emphasized poverty eradication and the right to economic growth for developing countries.
      • Called for financial support and technology transfer from developed countries to the Global South.
    • Commitments:
      • Signed & ratified all key Rio agreements: Rio Declaration, Agenda 21, UNFCCC, CBD.
    • Domestic Follow-up:
      • Integrated Agenda 21 principles into national policies (sustainable resource use, biodiversity protection, EIAs).
      • Strengthened environmental legislation under the Environment Protection Act (1986).
    • Role: Positioned itself as a voice of developing countries, balancing environment with development imperatives.
    [UPSC 2010] The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international treaty drawn at-

    Options:

    (a) United Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm, 1972

    (b) UN Conference on Environment and Development, Rio De Janerio, 1992 *

    (c) World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, 2002

    (d) UN Climate Change Conference, Copenhagen, 2009

     

  • Kulasekarapattinam Launch Complex

    Why in the News?

    ISRO Chairman V. Narayanan announced that the upcoming rocket launching site at Kulasekarapattinam (Tamil Nadu) will handle 20–25 satellite launches annually.

    Kulasekarapattinam Launch Complex

    About Kulasekarapattinam Spaceport:

    • Location: Coastal hamlet near Tiruchendur, Thoothukudi district, Tamil Nadu; inaugurated by PM in February 2024.
    • Second Spaceport: India’s second spaceport after Satish Dhawan Space Centre (Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh, 1971).
    • Capacity: Can handle 20–25 launches annually, including 24 launches using a Mobile Launch Structure.
    • Focus: Dedicated to Small Satellite Launch Vehicles (SSLVs), with capacity to launch rockets up to 500 kg.
    • Facilities: About 35 facilities including launch pad, rocket integration units, ground range, checkout systems, and Mobile Launch Structure with onboard checkout computers.

    Advantages offered by Kulasekarapattinam Spaceport:

    • Direct Southward Launches: Location allows launches into the Indian Ocean without crossing landmasses; ensures more safety from debris fall.
    • No Dogleg Manoeuvre: Unlike Sriharikota, no detour is needed to avoid Sri Lanka, saving fuel.
    • Efficient Trajectory: Improves efficiency for satellites in Sun-Synchronous Polar Orbits (SSPOs).
    • Payload Advantage: SSLVs from Kulasekarapattinam can place ~300 kg into SSPO, higher than from Sriharikota.
    • Decongestion: Reduces pressure on Sriharikota, which will focus on larger PSLV, GSLV, and Gaganyaan launches.
    • Commercial Boost: Strengthens India’s role in the global small-satellite launch market, enhancing space economy.
    • Strategic Advantage: Near-equator position provides benefits for certain orbital paths.
    [UPSC 2008] ISRO successfully conducted a rocket test using cryogenic engines in the year 2007. Where is the test-stand used for the purpose, located?

    Options: (a) Balasore (b) Thiruvananthapuram (c) Mahendragiri* (d) Karwar

     

  • With Sci-Hub gone, will the ‘One Nation, One Subscription’ scheme step up?

    Introduction

    The blocking of Sci-Hub in India marks a turning point in the battle between corporate publishers and the principle of open knowledge. At the heart of the issue lies the paradox of publicly funded research locked behind exorbitant paywalls. The government’s One Nation One Subscription (ONOS) scheme, with an allocation of ₹6,000 crore, aims to democratize access to 13,000 journals for research institutions. Yet, concerns remain about its cost-effectiveness, inclusivity, and long-term sustainability.

    Why is this issue in the news?

    • The Delhi High Court’s verdict against Sci-Hub is a landmark moment because:
    • For the first time in India, the judiciary has formally sided with publishers in the long-drawn copyright battle.
    • It stands in sharp contrast with the reality that research is funded by public money but monetized by private publishers with 30%+ profit margins.
    • The problem is enormous: lakhs of rupees per journal subscription make access unaffordable for many institutions, forcing dependence on Sci-Hub earlier.
    • The government’s ONOS initiative is the first large-scale attempt to address structural inequities in knowledge access, but doubts persist about its ability to replace shadow libraries.

    The Distinctive Nature of Scientific Publishing

    1. No royalties for authors: Researchers and peer reviewers are unpaid, unlike musicians or filmmakers.
    2. Publicly funded research: Much of Indian science is taxpayer-funded, yet access is privatized.
    3. Exorbitant subscriptions: Institutions pay lakhs for a single journal. Publishers justify costs via “quality control” but enjoy 30%+ profit margins, raising concerns of rent-seeking.

    The Global Controversy Around Sci-Hub

    1. Copyright infringement: Courts in the U.S., Europe, and now India have ruled against Sci-Hub.
    2. Essential access tool: For countless researchers, Sci-Hub was the only means to access knowledge, especially outside elite universities.
    3. Contempt charges: Alexandra Elbakyan allegedly violated court orders by running Sci-Net, a mirror service.
    4. Declining relevance: Technical unreliability and growing open-access alternatives are reducing its utility.

    The Vision of One Nation, One Subscription

    1. Government-led subscription: Outlay of ₹6,000 crore (2023–2026) for bulk access to 13,000 journals.
    2. Phase I focus: All public institutions; Phase II may include private ones.
    3. Equal access: Seeks to eliminate inequities between elite and smaller research centres.
    4. Limitations: Independent researchers and those at private centres remain excluded until Phase II.

    ONOS in the Context of Global Open-Access Movements

    1. Global open-access movement: Over half of papers are already open access through preprints and repositories.
    2. U.S. policy (2026): All federally funded research must be open.
    3. EU Horizon Europe: Similar open-access mandate.
    4. India’s challenge: At a time when the world moves toward open access, ONOS risks becoming an expensive detour.

    Structural Flaws in Scholarly Publishing

    1. Dependence on foreign publishers: ONOS continues India’s reliance on Western journals.
    2. Copyright transfer: Indian researchers must still give away rights to their work.
    3. Pay-to-publish dilemma: Funds freed at institutions may shift to open-access journals, but may ignore institutional repositories.
    4. Need for rights retention: Policies like Harvard/MIT (mandatory deposit in repositories) could empower Indian researchers.

    Conclusion

    The Sci-Hub ban highlights the persistent inequities in access to scientific knowledge. While ONOS is a step forward, it risks being a band-aid solution unless paired with deeper reforms: indigenous publishing capacity, national repositories, and copyright retention policies. India must not merely manage the symptoms of an exploitative system but must cure the disease by reclaiming knowledge as a public good.

    Value Addition

    Knowledge as a Public Good

    • Publicly funded research must be accessible to all because it is financed by taxpayers.
    • Blocking access (through high subscription fees or court orders) creates an elitist knowledge economy.
    • UN and UNESCO treat knowledge access as a pillar of Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 4: Quality Education, SDG 9: Innovation).

    Economic Dimension

    • Global publishers enjoy 30%+ profit margins, while Indian institutions pay lakhs per journal subscription, draining public funds.
    • ONOS at ₹6,000 crore (2023–2026) represents bulk negotiation power by the state, saving scattered institutional expenditure.
    • Issue of dependency on foreign publishers persists, highlighting the need for indigenous publishing ecosystems.

    Global Comparisons

    • U.S. (2026 mandate): All federally funded research must be openly accessible.
    • EU’s Horizon Europe: Immediate open access to publications funded under the programme.
    • Plan S (Europe, 2018): Publicly funded research must be published in open-access journals.
    • India risks being out of sync if it over-invests in subscriptions while others move to free access models.

    Technology and Governance

    • ONOS = India’s experiment in e-governance for knowledge.
    • Needs to integrate institutional repositories, preprint servers, and rights retention policies (like Harvard/MIT) to empower researchers.
    • Can be linked with the Digital India mission, showing tech-driven democratization of services.

    Ethical Dimension

    • Applied Ethics of Technology: Corporate profits vs. collective social welfare.
    • Moral dilemma: Should intellectual property rights override public access to life-saving or path-breaking research?
    • Covid-19 demonstrated that open-access collaboration saved lives by accelerating vaccine and drug development.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2024] ‘’What is the present world scenario of Intellectual Property Rights? Although India is second in the world to file patents, still only a few have been commercialized. Explain the reasons behind this less commercialization.”

    Linkage: The Sci-Hub ban and ONOS scheme reflect how IPR in scientific publishing creates barriers to access despite research being publicly funded. Globally, publishers extract high profits through restrictive copyright, mirroring the broader challenge of IPR becoming a tool of rent-seeking rather than innovation. India’s weak indigenous publishing ecosystem and overdependence on foreign journals parallel the problem of low commercialization of patents—both highlight the gap between innovation output and practical accessibility/utility.

  • [pib] Exercise ‘BRIGHT STAR 2025’

    Why in the News?

    India is set to participate with over 700 personnel from tri-services for 19th edition of Exercise Bright Star 2025 in Egypt.

    About Exercise Bright Star:

    • Origin: Began in 1980 as a US–Egypt bilateral drill after the Egypt–Israel peace treaty.
    • Nature: Now one of the largest and longest-running multinational tri-service military exercises in the Middle East.
    • Frequency: Held biennially in Egypt with the United States as the principal partner.
    • Objectives:
      • Enhance regional security and stability.
      • Improve jointness, interoperability, and operational coordination among partner nations.

    Key Highlights of the 2025 Edition:

    • Scale: Approximate 7,900 troops from 43 nations.
      • 13 countries directly deploying troops.
      • 30 countries participating as observers.
    • Strategic Significance:
      • Builds defence cooperation between India, Egypt, US, and partner nations.
      • Important amid West Asia, Red Sea, and Gulf security challenges.
    [UPSC 2024] Which of the following statements about ‘Exercise Mitra Shakti-2023’ are correct?

    1. This was a joint military exercise between India and Bangladesh.

    2. It commenced in Aundh (Pune).

    3. Joint response during counter-terrorism operations was a goal of this operation.

    4. Indian Air Force was a part of this exercise.

    Select the answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 4 (c) 1 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4*

     

  • Gangotri Glacier System (GGS) shrinks 10% in 4 decades

    Why in the News?

    A recent IIT Indore study shows that climate change has caused a 10% shrinkage in the Gangotri Glacier System over four decades, altering snowmelt and hydrology.

    Gangotri Glacier System (GGS) shrinks 10% in 4 decades

    About Gangotri Glacier System (GGS):

    • Location: Uttarkashi District, Uttarakhand, in the Central Garhwal Himalayas.
    • Origin: Near the Chaukhamba massif at ~7,000 metres above sea level.
    • Size: Main trunk 30–32 km long, 2–4 km wide, with a total glacierized area of ~252 sq. km.
    • Snout: Known as Gaumukh (“cow’s mouth”), source of the Bhagirathi River, which later merges with the Alaknanda at Devprayag to form the Ganga.
    • Tributaries: Includes Chaturangi, Raktavarn, Meru, Rudugaira, Kedar, and Vasuki glaciers.
    • Type: Valley-type glacier with granite, gneiss, and schist bedrock.
    • Features: Moraines, supraglacial lakes, crevasses, and avalanche fans.
    • Debris Cover: 20–24% of the glacier area is debris-covered, affecting melting rates.

    Key Findings of the IIT Indore Study (1980–2020):

    • Flow Contribution: Snowmelt 64%, glacier melt 21%, rainfall-runoff 11%, base flow 4%.
    • Decline in Snowmelt Share: From 73% in 1980–90 to 63% in 2010–20, reflecting climate change impact.
    • Temperature Rise: Mean annual temperature increased by 0.5°C in 2001–2020 compared to 1980–2000.
    • Shift in Peak Discharge: From August to July since the 1990s due to earlier melting and reduced winter precipitation.
    • Snowmelt Rebound: During 2010–2020, colder winters (–2°C) and higher winter precipitation (262 mm) increased snow accumulation.
    [UPSC 2019] Consider the following pairs:

    Glacier: River

    1. Bandarpunch -Yamuna

    2. Bara Shigri -Chenab

    3. Milam -Mandakini

    4. Siachen -Nubra

    5. Zemu -Manas

    Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?

    Options: (a) 1, 2 and 4* (b) 1, 3 and 4 (c) 2 and 5 (d) 3 and 5

     

  • SpaceX’s Starship completes critical test flight

    Why in the News?

    SpaceX’s Starship has completed its first fully successful test flight after a series of failures.

    SpaceX’s Starship completes critical test flight

    About SpaceX Starship:

    • Design: A two-stage heavy-lift launch vehicle built to carry crew and cargo to Earth orbit, the Moon, Mars, and beyond.
    • Developer: SpaceX, founded by Elon Musk, with the vision of enabling interplanetary travel and colonisation.
    • Size: Nearly 120 metres tall with booster, making it the largest rocket ever built and flown. Taller than Saturn V (111 m) and India’s Qutub Minar (72.5 m).
    • Historic Test Flight: On 27 August 2025, achieved its first fully successful flight. Booster splashed down in the Gulf of Mexico, spacecraft reached the Indian Ocean.
    • Role in NASA Missions: Critical to Artemis Program for returning humans to the Moon and later missions to Mars.
    • Long-term Goal: Make Starship fully and rapidly reusable, cutting costs and redefining space travel.

    Key Features of Starship:

    • Two-Stage Rocket System:
      • Super Heavy booster powered by 33 Raptor engines generating 74 meganewtons of thrust, nearly double NASA’s SLS and twice Saturn V.
      • Engines burn liquid oxygen and methane, enabling deep-space use and Mars resource utilisation.
      • Booster fully reusable, capable of atmospheric re-entry and recovery.
      • Six Raptor engines and four landing fins, designed for full reusability on long-duration missions.
    • Payload Capacity: Can carry up to 150 tonnes to Low-Earth Orbit and over 100 tonnes to the Moon and Mars, more than all soft-landed lunar payloads combined.
    • Cost Reduction Potential: Estimated to deliver 100 tonnes of cargo to Mars for ~$50 million, compared to NASA Shuttle’s $1.5 billion per launch with far less payload.
    [UPSC 2025] Consider the following space missions:

    I. Axiom-4 II. SpaDeX III. Gaganyaan

    How many of the space missions given above encourage and support microgravity research?

    Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All the three* (d) None

     

  • Samudrayaan Mission

    Why in the News?

    Two Indian aquanauts dived over 5,000 m in the Atlantic aboard French vessel Nautile, as part of India’s Samudrayaan Mission.

    What is Deep Ocean Mission (DOM)?

    • Approved: 2021 by the Union Cabinet, with a budget of ₹4,077 crore for 5 years.
    • Aim: Explore, conserve, and sustainably use deep-ocean resources to support India’s Blue Economy.
    • Six Components:
      • Develop technologies for deep-sea mining, submersibles, and robotics.
      • Ocean climate change advisory service with observations + predictive models.
      • Deep-sea biodiversity exploration and conservation.
      • Surveys for polymetallic nodules and minerals.
      • Energy & freshwater extraction technologies from oceans.
      • Advanced Marine Station for ocean biology & engineering → to bridge research & industry.

    About Samudrayaan Mission:

    • Nature: India’s first crewed deep-sea exploration mission.
    • Objective: To send 3 humans up to 6,000 m depth into the central Indian Ocean by 2027.
    • Vehicle: Crewed submersible Matsya-6000 (fish-shaped, 2.1 m personal sphere).
      • Capacity: 3 aquanauts.
      • Endurance: 12 hours normal + 96 hours emergency life support.
      • Material: Titanium alloy sphere (80 mm thickness) to withstand ~600x atmospheric pressure.
    • Coordinating Agency: National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT), Ministry of Earth Sciences.
    • Strategic Significance: Will place India among a select group of countries (US, Russia, China, Japan, France) with human deep-sea exploration capability.

    Progress made so far:

    • Aquanaut Training: Discussed above.
    • Matsya-6000 Development:
      • Successfully wet tested in Feb 2025.
      • Titanium alloy sphere fabrication ongoing at ISRO using electron beam welding.
      • Initial steel test sphere used for 500 m trials.
    • Technology Development:
      • Indigenous acoustic telephone built for underwater communication (works in open ocean after initial failures).
      • Life-support systems designed to maintain 20% oxygen and scrub CO₂.
    • Next Steps:
      • Human test dive at 500 m depth planned before full 6,000 m mission.
      • Full Samudrayaan launch targeted by 2027.
    [UPSC 2021] Consider the following statements:

    1.The Global Ocean Commission grants licenses for seabed exploration and mining in international waters.

    2.India has received licenses for seabed mineral exploration in international waters.

    3. ‘Rare earth minerals’ are present on the seafloor in international waters.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    Options:(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3