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GS Paper: GS3

  • What are Collisionless Shock Waves?

    Why in the News?

    A recent study published by Johns Hopkins University (USA) and Northumbria University (UK) reveals how Collisionless Shock Waves act as cosmic accelerators, helping subatomic particles gain ultra-high energy and travel vast distances in space.

    What are Collisionless Shock Waves?

    • Collisionless shock waves are disturbances in plasma (ionized gas) where energy transfer occurs without direct particle collisions, relying instead on electromagnetic forces.
    • They are found in supernova remnants, black hole disks, pulsars, magnetars, and planetary magnetospheres.
    • They act as natural cosmic accelerators, boosting electrons and other charged particles to ultra-high speeds.

    Key Findings from the Study

    • NASA’s MMS, THEMIS, and ARTEMIS missions observed an electron acceleration event near Earth’s bow shock on December 17, 2017.
    • Electrons in Earth’s foreshock region gained 500 keV of energy, reaching 86% of the speed of light, a huge increase from their usual 1 keV.
    • Diffusive shock acceleration (known for producing high-energy cosmic rays) requires electrons to already be moving at 50% of light speed before further acceleration can occur.
    • The study identifies how electrons receive this initial boost, a long-standing astrophysical mystery.
    • Scientists have long assumed that supernova explosions are the primary source of cosmic rays.
    • The recent study suggests that planetary magnetospheres interacting with stellar winds could also contribute to high-energy cosmic rays.

    How Shock Waves accelerate Particles without Collisions?

    • Unlike in solids, liquids, or gases, where energy is transferred via molecular collisions, plasma particles interact through electromagnetic fields.
    • This allows shock waves to accelerate electrons without direct contact.
    • Multi-Stage Acceleration Process:
      1. Plasma waves interact with electrons, imparting initial energy.
      2. Magnetic turbulence in the shock front causes electrons to spiral, further increasing their speed.
      3. Repeated interactions with plasma waves push electrons to relativistic speeds.
    • Role of Earth’s Bow Shock & Foreshock:
      • When the solar wind collides with Earth’s magnetosphere, it forms a shock wave.
      • The foreshock region ahead of this wave is highly turbulent, enabling efficient electron acceleration.

    PYQ:

    [2009] In the year 2008, which one of the following conducted a complex scientific experiment in which sub-atomic particles were accelerated to nearly the speed of light?

    (a) European Space Agency

    (b) European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN)

    (c) National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

    (d) National Academy of Sciences, USA

     

  • Income levels of salaried class have stagnated in recent years

    Why in the News?

    According to PLFS reports, employment in India is increasing, but the real wages of salaried workers have remained unchanged since 2019.

    What are the key reasons behind the stagnation of real wages for salaried workers in India since 2019?

    • Inflation Outpacing Wage Growth: Rising consumer prices (CPI) have eroded the purchasing power of salaries despite nominal wage increases. For example, Real wages for salaried workers in India were 1.7% lower in the June 2024 quarter compared to the June 2019 quarter (PLFS data).
    • Excess Labour Supply and Declining Returns to Education: An oversupply of qualified workers has reduced the premium for higher education, limiting salary growth. For example, the share of self-employed workers increased from 53.5% in 2019-20 to 58.4% in 2023-24, indicating a shift from salaried roles due to a lack of opportunities.
    • Depressed Private Sector Investment: Reduced corporate investment leads to slower job creation and wage stagnation. For example, India’s private sector investment-to-GDP ratio declined from 28% in 2011-12 to 21.1% in 2022-23 (Reserve Bank of India).
    • Policy Shocks (Demonetisation and GST Impact): Economic disruptions from demonetisation (2016) and GST (2017) weakened small and medium enterprises (SMEs), affecting formal employment. For example, Formal employment fell, and salaried employment as a share of total workers dropped from 22.9% in 2019-20 to 21.7% in 2023-24 (PLFS data).
    • Shift Toward Informal and Contractual Work: Companies increasingly rely on temporary and gig workers, offering lower pay and fewer benefits. For example, Casual labour wages increased by 12.3% (real terms) between 2019 and 2024, while salaried wages stagnated, reflecting a rise in informal work.

    Why is the increase in wages for casual labour not considered a net positive for the economy?

    • Lower Productivity Contribution: Casual labour typically involves low-skilled, irregular work with limited productivity gains. While wages may rise, the overall economic output does not grow proportionately.
      • For example, the agriculture sector, which employs a large share of casual labour, contributed only 16% to India’s GDP in 2023-24 despite employing over 45% of the workforce (Economic Survey 2023-24).
    • Informal Nature of Work: Casual jobs lack social security, health benefits, and job stability, leading to long-term economic insecurity despite wage increases.
      •  In India, 93% of the workforce remains in the informal sector with minimal social protection, contributing to economic vulnerability (ILO report, 2023).
    • Wage-Price Spiral Risk: Rising wages in low-skilled sectors can increase the cost of goods and services, driving inflation without improving living standards.
      • For instance, wage increases for casual farm labour contribute to higher food prices, intensifying retail inflation (CPI rose by 7.44% in July 2024, RBI).
    • Limited Skill Development and Upward Mobility: Casual work offers fewer opportunities for training or career advancement, trapping workers in low-wage cycles despite nominal wage growth.
      •  The Periodic Labour Force Survey (2023-24) shows that only 2.4% of India’s workforce received formal vocational training, limiting skill-based upward mobility.
    • Depressed Consumption and Savings Rates: Casual labourers typically earn subsistence-level wages, leaving little room for savings or significant consumption, which hampers long-term economic growth.
      • Household savings as a share of GDP declined from 23.6% in 2011-12 to 18.1% in 2022-23, reflecting weak wage-driven consumption (RBI report).

    When did real wages for self-employed workers begin to recover after the pandemic?

    Real wages for self-employed workers in India began to recover after the pandemic in the quarters. Despite this recovery, as of the June 2024 quarter, real wages remained 1.5% lower than in the June 2019 quarter.

    • Rural vs. Urban Disparities:
      • Rural Areas: In rural regions, self-employed workers experienced a 3.02% increase in real wages during the same period.
      • Urban Areas: Conversely, urban self-employed workers saw a decline of 5.2% in real wages compared to pre-pandemic levels.

    How have policy decisions like demonetization and the implementation of GST affected wage growth and employment patterns? 

    • Disruption of Informal and Small-Scale Enterprises: Both demonetisation and GST disrupted cash-dependent small and medium enterprises (SMEs), leading to job losses and reduced wage growth in the informal sector. Example: The share of salaried workers declined from 22.9% in 2019-20 to 21.7% in 2023-24 (PLFS data), indicating a shift away from formal employment.
    • Shift Toward Informal and Gig Work: Policy shocks accelerated the transition from stable salaried jobs to informal, gig-based, and self-employed work, which generally offers lower pay and fewer benefits. Example: The share of self-employed workers increased from 53.5% in 2019-20 to 58.4% in 2023-24, reflecting a rise in informal employment (PLFS data).
    • Slower Wage Growth and Employment Stagnation: Compliance burdens from GST and cash shortages from demonetisation constrained business operations, leading to slower wage increases across sectors. Example: Real wages for salaried workers were 1.7% lower in June 2024 compared to June 2019 (PLFS data), indicating stagnant wage growth despite economic recovery.

    Way forward: 

    • Enhance Formal Employment and Skill Development: Promote labour-intensive sectors and incentivize formal job creation through targeted tax benefits and reduced compliance burdens.
    • Strengthen Social Security and Wage Policies: Implement comprehensive social protection schemes for informal workers to ensure income stability and healthcare benefits.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Besides the welfare schemes, India needs deft management of inflation and unemployment to serve the poor and the underprivileged sections of the society. Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2022)

  • India second-largest arms importer after Ukraine

    Why in the News?

    India remained the second-largest arms importer, despite a 9.3% decline in imports between 2015-19 and 2020-24 a/c to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) Report.

    About SIPRI

    • The SIPRI is an independent organization established in 1966, based in Stockholm, Sweden, conducting research on conflict, arms control, and disarmament.
    • SIPRI provides comprehensive data on global arms imports, exports, and military expenditures, tracking defense trends and geopolitical conflicts worldwide.
    • It analyzes ongoing wars, nuclear proliferation, cybersecurity threats, and environmental security, offering policy recommendations for international peace and stability.
    • SIPRI publishes flagship reports such as the SIPRI Yearbook, Arms Transfers Database, and Military Expenditure Database, which are widely used by governments, researchers, and policymakers.

    India’s Arms Imports: Trends and Shifts

    • India remained the world’s second-largest arms importer, despite a 9.3% decline in imports from 2015-19 to 2020-24.
    • Russia accounted for 36% of India’s arms imports in 2020-24, significantly LOWER than 55% in 2015-19 and 72% in 2010-14.
    • India has reduced dependence on Russia and increased arms deals with France, the U.S., and Israel.
    • India became France’s largest arms importer (28%), with 36 Rafale fighter jets and six Scorpene submarines already contracted.
    • India is finalizing agreements for 26 Rafale-M jets and three additional Scorpene submarines.

    Global Arms Trade Highlights

    • Ukraine – The Largest Importer: Due to the ongoing war, Ukraine’s arms imports surged nearly 100 times in 2020-24 compared to 2015-19.
      • The U.S. accounted for 45% of Ukraine’s imports, followed by Germany (12%) and Poland (11%).
    • U.S. dominance in exports: The U.S. expanded its global arms market share to 43%, reinforcing its position as the top exporter.
    • Russia’s decline: Russian arms exports fell by 64%, dropping to 7.8% of global exports, behind France (9.6%).
    • European rearmament: European arms imports surged by 155% in response to rising security threats from Russia.
    • Pakistan’s growing imports: Pakistan’s arms imports grew by 61%, with China supplying 81% of its weapons, up from 74% in 2015-19.
    • China’s self-reliance: For the first time since 1990-94, China dropped out of the top 10 arms importers, reflecting its expanding domestic defense industry.
    • Italy’s rise in arms exports: Italy climbed from 10th to 6th place, with a 4.8% share of global arms exports.

    PYQ:

    [2020] What is the significance of Indo-US defence deals over Indo-Russian defence deals? Discuss with reference to stability in the Indo-Pacific region.

     

  • Exercise Khanjar-XII

    Why in the News?

    The 12th edition of the India-Kyrgyzstan Joint Special Forces Exercise KHANJAR-XII is set to be held in Kyrgyzstan.

    About Exercise KHANJAR-XII

    • KHANJAR-XII is the 12th edition of the India-Kyrgyzstan Joint Special Forces Exercise, aimed at enhancing counter-terrorism and special operations capabilities.
    • It is a bilateral military exercise held annually since 2011, alternately hosted by India and Kyrgyzstan.
    • The 2025 edition is being conducted in Kyrgyzstan.
    • Participants:
      • Indian Contingent: Parachute Regiment (Special Forces).
      • Kyrgyzstan Contingent: Kyrgyz Scorpion Brigade.
    • The primary objective is to strengthen military cooperation, improve joint operational capabilities, and enhance interoperability between the two nations’ Special Forces.

    Key Features:

    • Counter-Terrorism Focus: Training in urban and high-altitude warfare to counter modern security threats.
    • Special Forces Interoperability: Strengthening coordination in joint military operations.
    • Mountain Warfare & Survival Skills: Enhancing operational effectiveness in challenging terrains.
    • Military Technology Exchange: Sharing expertise on weapons systems, surveillance, and intelligence gathering.
    • Reinforcing India’s Central Asia Outreach: Strengthening India’s engagement with Central Asian nations under its Connect Central Asia policy.

  • As imports of semiconductor chips rise, India eyes local production

    Why in the News?

    At the World Economic Forum in January, Electronics and IT Minister Ashwini Vaishnaw announced that India will produce its first locally made semiconductor chip this year.

    What is the primary goal of India’s Semicon India Programme?

    • Reduce Import Dependency: To decrease reliance on foreign countries for semiconductor chips used in electronics, automobiles, and communication devices.  
    • Boost Domestic Manufacturing and Innovation: To establish a strong domestic ecosystem for semiconductor fabrication, assembly, testing, and packaging (ATP). Example: Construction of the Dholera semiconductor fabrication facility in Gujarat by Tata Electronics in collaboration with Taiwan’s Powerchip Semiconductor Manufacturing Corporation.
    • Enhance India’s Position in the Global Supply Chain: To integrate India into the global semiconductor value chain and attract investments from global tech giants. Example: The Tata Semiconductor Assembly and Test facility in Morigaon, Assam, is part of India’s effort to develop advanced chip packaging capabilities and reduce external reliance.

    How will it reduce import dependency on semiconductor chips?

    • Local Production of Semiconductor Chips: Domestic manufacturing of chips will reduce the need to import critical components used in electronics and communication. Example: India’s first indigenously manufactured semiconductor chip is expected to be produced in 2024, cutting reliance on imports from countries like China and South Korea.
    • Building Fabrication (Fab) Facilities: Establishing semiconductor fabrication plants allows India to produce advanced chips domestically. Example: The Dholera fabrication facility in Gujarat by Tata Electronics, in collaboration with Taiwan’s Powerchip Semiconductor Manufacturing Corporation will reduce the need for importing high-end chips.
    • Developing Assembly, Testing, and Packaging (ATP) Capabilities: Setting up ATP units enables India to process raw semiconductor wafers into finished products locally. Example: The Tata Semiconductor Assembly and Test facility in Morigaon, Assam, will handle large-scale chip assembly and packaging, decreasing dependence on foreign ATP services.
    • Diversifying Supply Chains and Strengthening Indigenous Innovation: Promoting research and development will encourage innovation in chip design and technology. Example: Investments in EDA software (Electronic Design Automation) and Core IP (patents) will enable India to design proprietary chips instead of relying on external technologies.
    • Attracting Global and Domestic Investments: Incentives and policy support under the Semicon India Programme will attract both domestic and foreign semiconductor companies to manufacture locally. Example: Government partnerships with industry leaders like Tata Electronics and Foxconn encourage private investment in chip manufacturing, reducing future import needs

    Where are the major semiconductor manufacturing and assembly facilities being constructed under the Semicon India Programme?

    • Tata-PSMC Semiconductor Fab, Dholera, Gujarat: ₹91,000 crore investment for a fabrication unit with a capacity of 50,000 wafer starts/month, producing 28 nm compute and power management chips for EVs, telecom, defense, and consumer electronics.
    • Tata TSAT ATMP Unit, Morigaon, Assam: ₹27,000 crore investment in an advanced packaging unit handling 48 million chips/day, catering to automotive, EV, telecom, and consumer electronics sectors.
    • CG Power-Renesas-Stars ATMP Unit, Sanand, Gujarat: ₹7,600 crore investment for specialized chip manufacturing with a capacity of 15 million chips/day, focusing on consumer, industrial, automotive, and power applications.
    • Micron Technology ATMP Unit, Sanand, Gujarat: $2.75 billion investment for a memory and storage chip assembly plant, expected to deliver the first chip by 2025, primarily for export.
    • Kaynes Semicon OSAT Facility, Sanand, Gujarat: ₹3,307 crore investment in an outsourced assembly and test unit, aiming to produce 200 million chips annually by March 2025, focusing on power electronics and industrial uses.

    Why has the actual spending under the Semicon India Programme consistently fallen?

    • Delays in Project Approvals: Lengthy evaluation and approval processes for semiconductor projects have slowed fund disbursement. For instance, the Tata and Micron projects faced regulatory and environmental clearance delays.
    • High Capital-Intensive Nature: Semiconductor manufacturing requires significant upfront investment, and the government has struggled to allocate sufficient funds. For example, the revised estimate for FY24 dropped to ₹1,503.36 crore from the budgeted ₹3,000 crore due to financial constraints.
    • Limited Domestic Expertise: India’s lack of advanced technological expertise in areas like chip design and fabrication has slowed implementation, resulting in underutilized budgets.
    • Complex Global Partnerships: Collaboration with international firms, such as Powerchip Semiconductor Manufacturing Corporation, involves lengthy negotiations and compliance with global standards, delaying fund utilization.
    • Infrastructure Bottlenecks: Inadequate supporting infrastructure (like power and water supply) at manufacturing sites has caused delays. For example, the Dholera facility required significant investments in infrastructure before full-scale construction could begin.

    Way forward: 

    • Streamline Approval Processes and Policy Support: Implement faster clearance mechanisms and provide consistent policy incentives to accelerate project approvals and fund disbursement.
    • Invest in Skill Development and Infrastructure: Enhance domestic expertise through specialized training programs and improve infrastructure at manufacturing hubs to ensure timely project execution.

  • World Spice Organisation (WSO)

    Why in the News?

    Despite being the largest producer and exporter of spices in the world, India’s share in the global seasoning market remains only 0.7%, compared to China’s 12% and the USA’s 11%, according to the World Spice Organisation (WSO).

    About the World Spice Organisation (WSO)

    • WSO was established in 2011 in Kochi, Kerala, India’s spice capital.
    • It is registered as a Not-for-Profit organization under the Travancore Cochin Literary, Scientific, and Charitable Societies Act, 1956.
    • It works towards food safety, sustainability, and market development for the spice industry.
    • It engages with farmers, processors, industry leaders, academia, and global spice associations.
    • It works with organizations like Spices Board India, Rainforest Alliance, GIZ (Germany), and IDH (Netherlands).
    • Partners with global spice trade bodies like:
      • American Spice Trade Association (ASTA)
      • European Spice Association (ESA)
      • International Pepper Community (IPC)
    • Participates in national and international food safety regulations, including:
      • FSSAI (India’s food safety authority)
      • BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards)
      • ISO (International Standards Organization)
      • Codex Alimentarius (Global food safety standards)
    • It serves as the technical partner for the All India Spices Exporters Forum (AISEF).

    Present Scenario of Spices  

    • India currently exports 1.5 million tonnes of spices worth $4.5 billion, accounting for one-fourth of the $20 billion global spice market. However, only 48% of these exports are value-added products, with the rest being whole spices.
    • 85% of India’s spices are consumed domestically, leaving limited surplus for exports.
    • Countries like Vietnam, Indonesia, Brazil, and China are emerging as strong competitors in the spice trade.
    • Production:
      • Major producing states: Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Assam, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala.
      • During 2022-23, the export of spices from India stood at US$ 3.73 billion, up from US$ 3.46 billion in 2021-22.
      • India produces about 75 of the 109 varieties listed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
    • Major Produced and Exported Spices by India:
      • Pepper, cardamom, chili, ginger, turmeric, coriander, cumin, celery, fennel, fenugreek, garlic, nutmeg & mace, curry powder, spice oils, and oleoresins.
      • Out of these spices, chili, cumin, turmeric, ginger, and coriander make up about 76% of the total production.
      • Chilli is the leading export earner, generating $1.1 billion annually.
      • Ginger exports have a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 27%.
    • Export:
      • In 2023-24, India’s spice exports totalled $4.25 billion, accounting for a 12% share of the global spice exports (till February 2024 data).
      • India exported spices and spice products to 159 destinations worldwide as of 2023-24. The top destinations were China, the USA, Bangladesh, the UAE, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, the UK, and Sri Lanka. These countries accounted for more than 70% of total exports.

     

    PYQ:

    [2019] Among the agricultural commodities imported by India, which one of the following accounts for the highest imports in terms of value in the last five years?

    (a) Spices

    (b) Fresh fruits

    (c) Pulses

    (d) Vegetable oils

     

  • ‘Brahmastra’ Missile

    Why in the News?

    Indian scientists have achieved a breakthrough in hypersonic missile technology, developing a modern-day ‘Brahmastra’ with an astonishing speed of 12,144 km per hour (Mach 10).

    'Brahmastra' Missile

    About Brahmastra (Long Range Anti-Ship Missile – LRAShM): 

    • Brahmastra is a state-of-the-art hypersonic glide missile developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO).
    • It is designed to neutralize enemy warships and strategic naval targets with extreme speed and precision.
    • With a speed of Mach 10 (12,144 km/h) and a range of 1,500 km, Brahmastra is one of the fastest and most lethal weapons in India’s defense arsenal.
    • The missile’s hypersonic glide vehicle technology allows it to evade enemy radar and missile defense systems, ensuring high-precision strikes on naval targets.

    Features of Brahmastra:

    • It can be launched from both land and naval platforms, enhancing India’s maritime strike capabilities.
    • Due to its hypersonic speed, Brahmastra can destroy an enemy warship within 7 to 8 minutes of launch.
    • The missile is built with advanced heat-resistant materials, preventing it from disintegrating under extreme temperatures during flight.
    • Unlike conventional missiles, Brahmastra retains its structural integrity even at hypersonic speeds, ensuring precise impact.
    • It uses scramjet propulsion and glide vehicle technology for sustained hypersonic flight.
    • It can adjust its trajectory mid-flight, making it highly maneuverable and difficult to intercept.
    • Its stealth and radar-evading capabilities ensure low detection probability, reducing the risk of interception.

    PYQ:

    [2014] Which reference to Agni-IV Missile, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. It is a surface-to-surface missile.

    2. It is fuelled by liquid propellant only.

    3. It can deliver one-tonne nuclear warheads about 7500 km away.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Places in news: Anchar Lake

    Why in the News?

    Anchar Lake, a vital water body in Kashmir, is renowned for producing Nadru (lotus stem), an aquatic delicacy that holds cultural, culinary, and economic significance in the region.

    Places in news: Anchar Lake

    About Anchar Lake 

    • Anchar Lake is situated in Soura, Srinagar near Ganderbal.
    • It is connected to Dal Lake via Amir Khan Nallah, which passes through Gilsar and Khushal Sar Lakes.
    • The lake is a part of the Sindh River Delta and plays a crucial role in supporting local aquatic ecosystems.
    • It is an integral part of the Shallabugh Wetland, which covers 1,675 hectares and serves as a designated bird sanctuary.
    • Its features:
      • It provides an essential habitat for migratory birds and various native aquatic species.
      • It functions as a flood-control reservoir, receiving excess water from Dal Lake during heavy rainfall.
      • It is home to the Hanji community, whose livelihood traditionally depended on fishing and other lake-based activities.

    PYQ:

    [2018] Which one of the following is an artificial lake?

    (a) Kodaikanal (Tamil Nadu)

    (b) Kolleru (Andhra Pradesh)

    (c) Nainital (Uttarakhand)

    (d) Renuka (Himachal Pradesh)

     

  • Himalayan tragedy: On avalanches in the Himalayan States

    Why in the News?

    Earlier this week, the Indian Army and Indo-Tibetan Border Police rescued 23 workers trapped under snow and ice after an avalanche in Mana village, Uttarakhand.

    What were the key challenges faced by the rescue teams during the avalanche operation in Mana Village?

    • Harsh Weather Conditions: The rescue teams operated under heavy snowfall and extreme cold at an elevation of 10,500 feet above mean sea level.
    • Blocked Access Routes: Snow-blocked roads required the use of helicopters for evacuation, complicating logistics and delaying rescue efforts.
    • Physical Exhaustion: Rescuers worked in near-continuous 60-hour shifts, demanding immense physical and mental stamina.
    • Buried Structures: Containers housing workers were buried under several feet of snow, ice, and rock, making detection and extraction challenging.
    • Limited Visibility and Navigation: Poor weather conditions hindered visibility, requiring the use of advanced technology like drone-based detection systems.

    Why is Mana village particularly vulnerable to avalanches and other natural disasters?

    • High-Altitude Location: Situated at 10,500 feet above sea level in the upper Himalayas, the village experiences heavy snowfall and extreme weather, increasing the risk of avalanches. Example: The recent avalanche buried containers under several feet of snow, making rescue operations challenging.
    • Geological Instability: The Himalayan region is tectonically active, making the terrain prone to landslides, avalanches, and other natural hazards. Example: Frequent landslides during the monsoon season disrupt roads and infrastructure in Uttarakhand.
    • Seasonal Climate Extremes: Harsh winters with severe snow accumulation create unstable snowpacks that can trigger avalanches. Example: Villagers traditionally migrate to lower areas like Gopeshwar during winter to avoid extreme weather risks.
    • Construction and Human Activity: Ongoing infrastructure projects, such as road-building by the Border Roads Organisation (BRO), disturb the fragile environment and increase disaster risks. Example: Workers were caught in an avalanche while working on a BRO construction site.
    • Proximity to Glacial Zones: Close to glacial areas where melting ice and shifting snowpacks heighten the probability of snow slides. Example: Melting glaciers in the region have previously triggered flash floods, like the 2021 Chamoli disaster.

    What lessons can be learned from other hazardous environments? 

    • Enhanced Shelter Design for Safety: Use reinforced, insulated shelters designed to withstand extreme weather and heavy snow loads, similar to Antarctic research stations. Example: Antarctic research bases like the Amundsen-Scott Station use elevated, modular designs to prevent snow burial and provide long-term safety.
    • Advanced Early Warning Systems: Implement real-time monitoring using satellite imaging, drones, and weather forecasting to detect potential avalanches and other hazards. Example: Switzerland’s avalanche warning system uses advanced sensors and weather models to alert communities and workers in mountainous areas.
    • Comprehensive Safety Protocols and Training: Provide specialized safety training, emergency drills, and evacuation plans to workers in high-risk zones. Example: Oil platforms in the Arctic conduct regular safety drills and have rapid-response systems for extreme weather emergencies.

    How could better infrastructure and safety measures reduce the risks faced by workers in high-altitude, disaster-prone areas? (Way forward)

    • Improved Worker Shelters and Living Conditions: Construct insulated, avalanche-resistant shelters with emergency exits and heating systems to protect workers from harsh weather. Example: The Siachen Glacier military base uses reinforced prefabricated shelters designed to withstand extreme snow and sub-zero temperatures.
    • Deployment of Real-Time Monitoring and Early Warning Systems: Use geospatial technology, drones, and automated weather stations to track snow accumulation and predict avalanches. Example: Japan’s snow monitoring system uses remote sensors to provide early warnings, reducing avalanche risks in mountainous areas.
    • Enhanced Emergency Response Infrastructure: Establish permanent rescue facilities with specialized equipment (e.g., thermal detectors and rapid evacuation routes) for quicker disaster response. Example: The Alps region in Europe maintains well-equipped avalanche rescue stations, ensuring faster response times and reducing casualties.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Differentiate the causes of landslides in the Himalayan region and Western Ghats. (UPSC IAS/2021)

  • India needs to expand its trading base to overcome global headwinds

    Why in the News?

    The rise in the services Purchasing Managers’ Index (PMI) to 59 in February has brought relief to investors and policymakers.

    What is the Purchasing Managers’ Index (PMI)? 

    • The Purchasing Managers’ Index (PMI) is an economic indicator that measures the business activity in manufacturing and services sectors, indicating expansion if above 50 and contraction if below 50.

    What is the significance of the sharp rise in the services Purchasing Managers’ Index (PMI)?

    • Indicator of Economic Expansion: A PMI reading above 50 signifies sectoral growth. The rise to 59 in February reflects a strong rebound in the services sector. Example: Increased demand for financial services and hospitality indicates higher consumer spending and business confidence.
    • Boost to Investor Confidence: A higher PMI suggests a positive business environment, encouraging domestic and foreign investments. Example: Global investors may increase FDI in India’s technology and telecommunication sectors due to sustained growth signals.
    • Job Creation and Income Growth: Growth in the services sector leads to higher employment opportunities and better wages. Example: The rise in IT services and healthcare sectors can create new jobs in software development and medical support.
    • Balancing Manufacturing Weakness: A strong services PMI can offset slowdowns in manufacturing, ensuring overall economic stability. Example: Despite the manufacturing PMI falling to a 14-month low, growth in financial services has maintained economic resilience.
    • Improved Fiscal Outlook: Higher activity in services increases tax revenues, improving the government’s ability to fund infrastructure and social programs. Example: Growth in e-commerce and logistics boosts GST collections, strengthening public finances.

    Which major challenges to India’s services and manufacturing sectors? 

    As per the industry leaders and NASSCOM’s 2025 Strategic Review report, the major challenges are :

    • Technological Disruption from Artificial Intelligence (AI): AI-driven solutions are transforming traditional business models, reducing revenue from new contracts, and reshaping hiring and training practices. Example: Automation in IT services is reducing the need for entry-level jobs, impacting employment growth.
    • Global Protectionism and Rising Tariffs: Increasing reciprocal tariffs and trade barriers, particularly from major economies like the United States, pose a threat to export-oriented industries. Example: U.S. tariffs on Indian textiles and pharmaceuticals may reduce market competitiveness and profit margins.
    • Slowdown in IT Sector Growth: India’s IT sector growth is expected to be 5.1% in FY25, a decline from its historical 16% CAGR, due to reduced demand and shifting client priorities. Example: Major IT firms report fewer large-scale outsourcing contracts as clients adopt in-house AI solutions.
    • Geopolitical Uncertainty: Geopolitical tensions and supply chain disruptions increase business risks and operational costs. Example: Disruptions in the Red Sea trade route affect electronics and automotive supply chains.
    • Potential U.S. Recession Risk: A U.S. economic slowdown could reduce export demand, significantly impacting both manufacturing and services, as the U.S. is India’s largest trading partner. Example: A U.S. recession may lead to fewer orders for Indian IT services, pharmaceuticals, and automotive components.

    How could the reciprocal tariffs announced by the U.S. impact India’s manufacturing sector?

    • Reduced Export Competitiveness: Higher import duties on Indian goods will increase prices in the U.S. market, making Indian products less competitive against local and other global manufacturers. Example: Indian textile exports to the U.S. could decline as higher tariffs make them more expensive compared to those from Vietnam or Bangladesh.
    • Disruption of Supply Chains: Tariff barriers may affect cross-border supply chains, increasing production costs and causing delays in delivery. Example: Indian automotive components exported to U.S. manufacturers may face disruptions, affecting just-in-time production systems.
    • Reduced Investment and Market Access: Tariffs create uncertainty, discouraging foreign direct investment (FDI) and limiting India’s access to the lucrative U.S. market. Example: Electronics manufacturers considering India as a production hub may shift investments to low-tariff countries to maintain U.S. market access.

    Way forward: 

    • Diversify Export Markets: Strengthen trade ties with emerging economies (e.g., Africa, Southeast Asia) and regional blocs to reduce dependence on the U.S. market.
    • Enhance Domestic Manufacturing Competitiveness: Promote Make in India, invest in advanced technologies, and offer export incentives to reduce costs and improve global market access.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Do you agree that the Indian economy has recently experienced V-shaped recovery? Give reasons in support of your answer.  (UPSC IAS/2021)