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GS Paper: GS3

  • What is the basic principle behind vaccine development? How do vaccines work? What approaches were adopted by the Indian vaccine manufacturers to produce COVID-19 vaccines?

    Vaccines are biological preparations that provide immunity against infectious diseases by training the immune system to fight pathogens. India has emerged as a global vaccine hub, supplying over 60% of global vaccine demand through indigenous vaccine development.

    Basic Principle Behind Vaccine Development

    Mimicking natural infection: Vaccines imitate infections to safely activate the body’s immune defenses.

    Antigen as the key component: Vaccines contain antigens that trigger antibody production. These may include:

    Weakened or killed pathogens

    Pathogen fragments or genetic material

    Inactivated bacterial toxins (toxoids)

    Types of vaccine platform:

    Live-attenuated vaccines: Use weakened living pathogens, providing strong immunity but posing risks to immunocompromised individuals. Eg- MMR and Chickenpox vaccines.

    Non-live vaccines: Use killed pathogens or subunits, making them safer but requiring booster doses due to shorter immunity. Eg- DTaP vaccine.

    Addressing viral mutations: Vaccines for rapidly mutating viruses are periodically updated to maintain protection. Eg- Seasonal flu vaccines and COVID-19 boosters.

    How Vaccines Work?

    Immune system activation: Vaccine antigens are recognized as foreign threats, activating white blood cells to multiply and respond.

    Antibody production: White blood cells produce antibodies that specifically identify and neutralize the pathogen.

    Immunological memory: After the antigen is removed, memory cells remain in the body, providing long-term immunity.

    Protection against disease: On future exposure, memory cells rapidly produce antibodies, preventing severe illness or death.

    Approaches Adopted by Indian Vaccine Manufacturers for COVID-19

    Inactivated whole-virion platform (Covaxin): Bharat Biotech and Indian Council of Medical Research developed a vaccine using chemically inactivated SARS-CoV-2 virus to safely trigger immunity.

    Viral vector platform (Covishield): Serum Institute of India(SII) used a harmless chimpanzee adenovirus carrying spike protein genetic code to stimulate immune response.

    Recombinant protein subunit platform (Covovax & Corbevax): SII and Biological E developed vaccines using purified spike proteins with adjuvants to induce antibodies.

    DNA plasmid platform (ZyCoV-D): Zydus Cadila developed the world’s first human DNA vaccine using plasmid DNA delivered through a needle-free injector.

    mRNA platform (GEMCOVAC-19): Gennova Biopharmaceuticals developed an mRNA vaccine using lipid nanoparticles to deliver spike-protein instructions safely into cells.

    India’s diverse COVID-19 vaccine response-from inactivated vaccines to DNA and mRNA platforms-has strengthened its role as the Pharmacy of the World. Expanding indigenous R&D and ensuring timely immunization remain vital for achieving United Nations SDG 3(Good Health and Well-being)

  • Naxalism is a social, economic and developmental issue manifesting as a violent internal security threat. In this context, discuss the emerging issues and suggest a multilayered strategy to tackle the menace of Naxalism.

    LWE refers to violent insurgency driven by Maoist or Naxalite ideologies, with an objective of overthrowing the government and establishing a communist society.

    Naxalism issue

    Social Issues Driving Naxalism

    Jal, Jungle, Jameen – Forced labour, expropriation of resources by outsiders, evasion of land ceiling laws, denial of land claims

    Maoist ideology of armed class struggle, anti-state revolution, and redistribution of resources appeals to sections alienated by inequality and exclusion. Eg- narrative of a “people’s war.”

    Land Displacement – Eg- Mining-induced displacement in Jharkhand’s coal belt (Ramgarh, Hazaribagh).

    Historical Socio-Economic Deprivation– Eg- LWE districts like Malkangiri, Sukma have some of the lowest HDI indicators.

    Economic Issues Driving Naxalism

    Unemployment & Lack of Livelihood Options- Eg- Jharkhand’s rural districts have among the highest youth unemployment in Eastern India.

    Resource Extraction without benefit sharing- Mining projects with low local hiring.

    Absence of Market Linkages – Eg- Bamboo and lac sold at low prices.

    Developmental Issues Driving Naxalism

    Governance Vacuum – poor service delivery and law enforcement.

    Poor Infrastructure – Lack of roads, telecom, electricity, and markets leaves communities isolated.

    Low Human Development Indicators – High malnutrition, low literacy, and inadequate health facilities.

    Poor implementation of welfare schemes – Leakages, corruption, and absence of monitoring. Eg- Nearly 15% of forest and community land claims under the FRA are pending.

    Emerging issues

    Urban Front Strategy – Urban Naxals aim to gain legal and logistical support from cities-referred to as the “.”

    Tactical Asymmetry and “Contactless” Warfare – Eg- use of Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) and drones

    Dandakaranya region along Chhattisgarh-Maharashtra-Odisha remains a key guerrilla base due to its difficult terrain.

    Recruitment of Minors and Vulnerable Youth – Eg- Reports of child soldiers in southern Bastar.

    Inter-State Coordination Challenges in intelligence sharing and joint operations.

    Over 78,000 hectares of forest land was approved for diversion across India for non-forest usage in the last four years.

    Multilayered strategy

    Policy level

    Implement the “National Policy and Action Plan (2015)” in timely manner

    Accelerate Development – Road Requirement Plan (RRP-I), mobile towers, banking, health centres, PDS reforms in LWE belts.

    Strengthening PESA –

    real-time digital dashboards for fund utilization to Gram Sabhas

    “Bottom-Up” planning model – from “state imposition” to “participatory development”

    Economic development

    “Forest-to-Market” Value Chain development through Van Dhan Vikas Kendras (VDVKs)

    Promotion of Tribal-Start-up Ecosystem in food processing – Eg- export of products like Mahua and wild honey

    Governance level

    “The only way to end insurgency is to win the hearts and minds of people through inclusive governance.” – Rajnath Singh

    Transparent and Participatory Mining & Resource Management- Eg- share of mineral royalties to local communities through the DMF Funds

    Technology for Governance – Use GIS mapping, drones, and e-governance platforms for service delivery and monitoring.

    Transparency and accountability in project implementation to address Politician-bureaucrat-corporate nexus (vohra committee)

    Security level

    Strengthen Intelligence & Tech-Enabled Policing – Use of drones, satellite mapping, GPS-based tracking, communication intercept tools.

    Capacity building – Eg- fortified police stations, all-terrain vehicles for deep forest movement.

    Inter-State Coordination – Coordination between Chhattisgarh-Odisha-Jharkhand-Maharashtra in tri-junction zones.

    Community Policing – Initiatives like Jan Maitri, sports outreach, and anti-propaganda programmes.

    Progress anchored in justice and inclusion is the best antidote to extremism.

  • The increase in life expectancy in the country has led to newer health challenges in the community. What are those challenges and what steps need to be taken to meet them?

    India’s life expectancy has increased to 72.4 years (2025) due to better healthcare and nutrition. However, an ageing population brings new epidemiological, economic and social health challenges.

    Newer Health Challenges Emerging from Higher Life Expectancy

    Rise in Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) – Higher prevalence of diabetes, hypertension, heart disease, cancer, dementia cause over 65% of total deaths in India.

    Geriatric Health Issues

    Increase in frailty, vision/hearing loss, arthritis.

    Growing burden of neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.

    Multi-morbidity – Elderly increasingly suffer from multiple chronic conditions, requiring continuous care.

    Mental Health Challenges

    Rising cases of depression, loneliness, anxiety.

    Lack of community-based mental health services.

    Treatment of chronic and age-related conditions increases out-of-pocket expenditure.

    Weak Elderly Care Infrastructure – Limited geriatric wards, rehabilitation centres, home-care services and trained geriatric nurses.

    Feminization of aging – women face greater economic insecurity, inadequate pensions, elder abuse, and social isolation.

    Steps Needed to Address These Challenges

    Strengthen Geriatric Healthcare – Establish geriatric wards in district hospitals and train geriatric specialists

    Community-Based Care

    Promote home healthcare and caregiver support services.

    Incentivise care economy (eldercare workers, physiotherapists).

    National NCD Prevention Strategy

    Screen population for hypertension, diabetes, cancers through HWCs.

    Promote lifestyle interventions: yoga, diet counselling, tobacco control.

    Strengthen Mental Health Services

    Expand Tele-MANAS, district mental health programmes.

    Senior citizen counselling and social engagement platforms.

    Social Protection – Expand pension coverage by strengthening PM-SYM.

    Promote Active and Healthy Ageing through Fit India Movement.

    Data and Technology Integration – Use telemedicine, remote monitoring, and AI-based early diagnosis.

    A forward-looking strategy that integrates healthcare, community support, and the silver economy will ensure that longer lives translate into healthier, dignified, and economically meaningful lives.

  • Discuss global warming and mention its effects on the global climate. Explain the control measures to bring down the level of greenhouse gases which cause global warming, in the light of the Kyoto Protocol, 1997.

    Global warming refers to the long-term rise in Earth’s average surface temperature due to increased concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) from human activities.

    Effects of Global Warming on Global Climate

    Melting Glaciers & Polar Ice – Eg – Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets losing mass at record rates.

    Sea-Level Rise – IPCC projects 1.3-1.6 m SLR by 2100 under high-emission scenarios – Submergence of low-lying coasts, salinity intrusion and displacement.

    Extreme Weather Events – Eg – Increasing frequency of Category 4-5 cyclones in the Indian Ocean.

    Disruption of Monsoons – Erratic and unpredictable rainfall.

    Ocean Acidification – Elevated CO₂ lowers pH, affecting coral reefs and fisheries. Eg – Mass bleaching events on the Great Barrier Reef.

    Biodiversity Decline – Species migration and extinction risks rise.

    Intensification of feedback loops – Eg- Permafrost thaw releases methane, warming oceans release less CO₂, and forest dieback reduces carbon sinks

    Expansion of arid zones – Higher temperatures increase evapotranspiration and reduce soil moisture. Eg – Prolonged droughts in Horn of Africa

    Disruption of Global Thermohaline Circulation – Eg- weakening of Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC)

    Hotter, drier conditions raise wildfire risks – Eg – Australian bushfires (2019-20) and California wildfires

    Control Measures to Reduce GHGs (under Kyoto Protocol, 1997)

    The Kyoto Protocol was the first legally binding global framework mandating GHG reduction by industrialised nations.

    Binding Emission Reduction Targets – Annex-I countries committed to reducing emissions by 5% below 1990 levels during 2008-2012.

    Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) – Allows developed countries to invest in emission-reduction projects in developing nations and earn carbon credits.

    Joint Implementation (JI) – Developed nations can meet their Kyoto targets via emission-reduction projects in other Annex-I countries.

    International Emissions Trading (IET) – countries with surplus emission units trade them with those exceeding their limits.

    Other Measures

    Enhancing Carbon Sinks through afforestation, reforestation and improved land management. Eg- Miyawaki method of Urban Forestry

    Low-Carbon Technologies to reduce fossil-fuel use. Eg- EVs

    Energy Efficiency – Efficiency standards, industrial retrofits, transport reforms and building codes reduce GHG intensity.

    Policy Support for Green Finance – Eg- tax breaks, green bonds, climate insurance etc

    Implementing these through enhanced national commitments, equitable climate finance and rapid decarbonization remains essential for achieving SDG 13 (Climate Action)

  • Each year a large amount of plant material, cellulose, is deposited on the surface of Planet Earth. What are the natural processes this cellulose undergoes before yielding carbon dioxide, water and other end products?

    Cellulose, the main structural material in plant cell walls, is the Earth’s most abundant organic polymer. When plants die, microorganisms decompose cellulose into carbon dioxide, water, and humus, recycling nutrients back into ecosystems.

    Natural processes undergone by cellulose

    Chemical Degradation:

    Cellulose decomposition is carried out by microbes such as Trichoderma and Clostridium, which secrete cellulase enzymes.

    These enzymes sequentially break cellulose into smaller chains, then cellobiose,and finally glucose for microbial absorption.

    Metabolic Processing: After absorption, microbes metabolize glucose to release energy.

    Oxygen-rich conditions: aerobic microbes convert glucose into carbon dioxide and water.

    Oxygen-poor environments: wetlands, anaerobic microbes and methanogens ferment glucose, producing methane and carbon dioxide.

    Humification:

    Not all plant material fully decomposes; some forms stable humus through reactions with lignin and microbial proteins.

    Humus enriches soil fertility, improves water retention, and acts as an important long-term carbon sink.

    The natural processing of deposited cellulose represents the core operational machinery of the Global Carbon Cycle. Without this systematic microbial and physical breakdown, plant litter would accumulate indefinitely, locking away vital nutrients and choking planetary ecosystems.

  • Discuss in detail the photochemical smog emphasizing its formation, effects and mitigation. Explain the 1999 Gothenburg Protocol.

    Photochemical smog is a secondary air pollutant formed when sunlight reacts with nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) to produce oxidants like ozone and create a brownish haze in urban atmospheres.

    Effects of Photochemical Smog

    Human Health Impacts – Causes respiratory irritation, asthma, reduced lung function and cardiovascular stress.

    In 2021, air pollution caused 2.1 million deaths in India (State of Global Air Report 2024)

    Crop Damage – Ozone leads to leaf chlorosis, reduced photosynthesis and lower yields. Eg- Wheat and soybean show high ozone sensitivity.

    Material Degradation – PAN and ozone corrode rubber, plastics, textiles and paints.

    Reduced Visibility – affect transport and aviation safety. Eg- Delhi in winter

    Mitigation of Photochemical Smog

    Vehicular Emission Control –

    Use catalytic converters to reduce Nitrogen and carbon monoxide emissions,

    Expand EV network

    Regulatory measures – Odd-even and congestion pricing (London Model)

    Industrial Pollution Reduction – Installation of scrubbers, VOC capture systems.

    Waste to energy – Eg- biofuels from agriculture waste in Punjab, Haryana

    High-resolution air quality monitoring network at the construction site linked to automatic sprayers, mist cannons, or sprinklers to reduce dust

    Expand Urban Green Infrastructure – Eg- Singapore’s green urban planning

    Air Quality Forecasting & Alerts – Eg- GRAP-like measures during smog episodes.

    1999 Gothenburg Protocol

    Protocol to the UNECE Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP)

    Sets national emission ceilings for SO₂, NOx, VOCs and ammonia (NH₃).

    Binding country-specific reduction targets for harmful emissions.

    Updated in 2012 to include fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and black carbon.

    Monitoring and Reporting Mechanism for transparency and accountability

    Adopting WHO’s 4 Pillar Strategy is essential to achieve Clean India

    Expanding the knowledge base

    Monitoring and reporting

    Global leadership and coordination

    Institutional capacity strengthening

  • Explain the causes and effects of coastal erosion in India. What are the available coastal management techniques for combating the hazard?

    Coastal Erosion refers to breaking down and carrying away of materials by sea. As per National Centre for Coastal Research, about 33.6% of Indian coast is eroding.

    Causes

    Natural Causes

    Cyclones and Storm Surges erode dunes and beaches. Eg- Bay of Bengal cyclone belts.

    Climate-induced Sea-Level Rise submerges low-lying coasts. Eg- Sundarbans delta witnessing shoreline retreat.

    Strong tidal flow and seasonal currents disturb sediment balance. Eg- West coast monsoonal erosion.

    Loss of Natural Buffers – depletion of coral reefs, dunes or seagrass beds reduces wave dissipation. Eg- Reef loss around Lakshadweep.

    Anthropogenic Causes

    Construction of Ports, Breakwaters and Jetties interrupt sediment transport, causing erosion downdrift. Eg- Ennore and Puducherry coastlines.

    River Damming – Dams reduce sediment supply reaching deltas and beaches. Eg- Shrinkage of Godavari and Narmada deltas.

    Sand Mining removes beach sediment. Eg- Severe erosion hotspots in Kerala.

    Coastal Land Reclamation increases erosion by altering the shoreline. Eg- Reclaimed coasts around Mumbai.

    Destruction of Mangroves eliminates natural wave barriers.

    Pollution and Ecosystem Degradation reduce shoreline stability. Eg- Coral mortality in Gulf of Mannar.

    Effect

    Effects on Environment

    Loss of Coastal Habitats – Eg- Mangrove loss in the Sundarbans.

    Saltwater Intrusion – degrade freshwater ecosystems. Eg- Salinisation of Andhra Pradesh coastal farmlands.

    Loss of natural buffers heightens storm-surge and monsoon flooding risk. Eg- Erosion-induced flooding in Kerala’s low-lying coast.

    Effects on Economy

    Damage to Infrastructure – Roads, bridges and coastal installations become unstable due to subsidence. Eg – Road collapse incidents in Uttar Kannada (Karnataka).

    Loss of Productive Land – Eg- Farmland abandonment in Tamil Nadu erosion belts.

    Threat to critical infrastructure – Eg- offshore oil plants and windmills

    Effects on Society

    Displacement of Coastal Communities due to Shrinking shorelines

    Loss of Livelihoods – Fishing communities lose landing points and fish stocks.

    Saline intrusion reduces drinking water availability and increases contamination risks.

    Loss of Cultural Heritage – Eg- Threats to traditional coastal temples in Tamil Nadu.

    Available coastal Management Techniques

    Hard Engineering Measures

    Seawalls to block wave attack.

    Groynes – Trap sand and widen beaches. Eg- Puducherry groyne field.

    Breakwaters – Offshore barriers that reduce wave energy. Eg- Chennai port.

    Revetments – Sloped rock armour to absorb wave impact.

    Soft Engineering Measures

    Ecological Restoration of Mined Coasts– Eg – Puducherry’s beach nourishment project.

    Dune Stabilisation – Planting grasses and fencing dunes.

    Mangrove Restoration – Eg- MISHTI-based efforts in Sundarbans.

    Coral and Seagrass Restoration – Eg- Andaman reef rehabilitation.

    Beach cleanliness drives – Eg- Blue Flag Certification

    Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)

    Sediment Budgeting in Coastal Planning to ensure river-to-coast sediment flow is maintained.

    Ecosystem-Based Coastal Planning – Combines geomorphology, ecology and socio-economic factors. Eg- ICZM projects in Gujarat, Odisha, West Bengal.

    Regulatory Tools (CRZ Norms) – no-development zones and hazard mapping reduce vulnerability.

    Coastal Management Information System (CMIS) to collect nearshore coastal data for planning, designing, and maintaining coastal protection structures

    Early Warning Systems – INCOIS alerts for timely action.

    Coastal erosion in India requires integrated, science-based and community-driven management

  • Explain the mechanism and occurrence of cloudburst in the context of the Indian subcontinent. Discuss two recent examples.

    IMD defines cloudburst as an extreme weather event involving very high-intensity rainfall (often >100 mm/hour) over a small geographical area (20-30 sq. km.) within a short duration.

    Mechanism of Cloudburst

    Moist air masses are forced to rise abruptly when they encounter steep mountain slopes.

    Rapid ascent causes condensation and release of latent heat, intensifying convection.

    Strong Convective Clouds (Cumulonimbus) up to 12-15 km.

    Moisture Supply from Monsoon Systems enhances instability.

    When updrafts weaken, large volumes of accumulated rainwater are released at once, causing cloudburst-like rainfall.

    Occurrence of cloudburst in the Indian Subcontinent

    Himalayan and Western Ghat Topography – Steep slopes promote rapid vertical uplift.

    Monsoon Dynamics – High atmospheric moisture during June-September.

    Climate Change – Rising temperatures increase atmospheric moisture-holding capacity. Eg- every 1°C rise lets air hold ~7% more moisture.

    Land-Use Changes – Deforestation, slope cutting, and urbanisation increase runoff and disaster impact.

    2 recent examples

    Cloudburst in Uttarakhand in 2025 – Chamoli, Rudraprayag, Tehri, and Bageshwar districts affected

    Himachal Pradesh Cloudbursts in 2025 – affectedKullu, Mandi, Shimla districts. Triggered flash floods and massive landslides. Losses at about Rs 4,300 crore and nearly 380 deaths

    Mitigation measures

    Structural

    Engineering solutions – Retaining walls, slope drainage, rock bolting, geo-textiles,

    Nature based solutions – Afforestation in himalaya

    Non-Structural

    Expansion of multi-hazard insurance

    Disaster resilient urban planning (Mishra committee on Joshimath crisis)

    The Sendai Framework’s proactive approach is essential for making Bharat a ‘weather-ready and climate-smart’ nation.

  • What are the major challenges of Public Distribution System (PDS) in India? How can it be made effective and transparent ?

    The PDS (started in 1960s) is a government-run food security mechanism that provides subsidised foodgrains to eligible households through a network of Fair Price Shops.

    Major challenges of the PDS

    Weak supply chain management – Storage Losses due to poor warehousing and handling. Eg- 40% of the food wasted (1.5 lakh crore or 1% of the GDP)

    Open ended procurement leads to overflowing of FCI godowns

    Diversion – Eg- 28% of allocated foodgrains fail to reach beneficiaries as per HCES 2022-23.

    Inclusion and exclusion errors due to faulty beneficiary identification.

    Corruption and ghost beneficiaries – Over 47 million bogus ration cards cancelled between 2013-2021

    Corruption at Fair Price Shops (FPS) – Issues of under-weighing, overcharging etc

    Fiscal Burden – Food subsidy budget @ 2.1 lakh cr in 2025-26

    PDS is cereal-centric, ignoring dietary diversity. Leads to triple burden of malnutrition – undernutrition, obesity, micronutrient deficiency.

    Technology issues – Internet failure, biometric mismatch and device malfunction under e-PoS / Aadhaar authentication.

    Way Forward

    Shanta Kumar Committee Recommendations on Revamping of PDS

    Direct Procurement by States

    Private Sector Involvement in procurement, storage, and distribution

    Diversify the food basket – Include millets, pulses, edible oil and iodised salt for nutritional security.

    Strengthen grievance redressal – Set up toll-free helplines, social audits and citizen charters at FPS level.

    Community monitoring – Involve self-help groups, local bodies and civil society in supervision.

    Periodic updating and verification of ration cards.

    Universal PDS similar to Tamil Nadu’s model.

    Optimise buffer stock norms to reduce food grain wastage.

    The PDS remains a vital tool for India’s food security and realise SDG 1,2,3,and 12

  • What are the main bottlenecks in upstream and downstream process of marketing of agricultural products in India ?

    Agricultural marketing refers to the entire process involved in moving farm produce from the farmer to the final consumer. In India, this system faces bottlenecks at both upstream (farm-level) and downstream (market-to-consumer) stages.

    Fragmented Landholdings – 86% small and marginal farmers with low production volumes make aggregation difficult.

    Poor First-Mile Connectivity – About 25% rural habitations lack pucca road connectivity – increases spoilage of perishables.

    Lack of On-Farm Storage leads to distress sales. Eg- 166 MMT storage capacity gap (FAO)

    Inadequate Primary Processing – Minimal grading, sorting, cleaning, and drying at the farm level

    High Post-Harvest Losses – Losses of 6-18% in fruits & vegetables due to poor handling.

    Weak Farmer Institutions – FPO/cooperatives have limited capacity for aggregation and marketing

    Limited Access to Information – Farmers lack real-time data on prices, demand and arrivals.

    High Input & Transport Costs makes farm-to-mandi movement expensive. Eg- logistics cost is 14% of GDP

    Demand and supply gap due to Cobweb Phenomenon (Economic Survey) – Crop production depends on prices in previous periods rather than present demand

    63% of agricultural households sold their crops to local markets and only 7.2% sold to APMCs.

    APMC operating in monopolised silos limit free inter-state movement and competition. Eg- Licensing barriers and cartelisation

    Dominance of Intermediaries leads to low price realisation. Eg- Farmers get only 25-30% of final price in perishables.

    Inadequate Market Infrastructure – Mandis lack grading, sorting, storage, and drying yards. Only 10% of mandis meet required norms (Dalwai Committee).

    Low Digital Integration – Only about 1500 mandis integrated with e-NAM (2024).

    Quality & SPS Compliance Gaps – Inadequate testing infrastructure impacts domestic sales and exports. Eg- EU rejecting Mango consignment

    Organised retail remains concentrated in metro and Tier-1 cities, with limited rural coverage

    Low investment – Private investment <1% Agri-GDP.

    Way Forward

    Strengthening FPOs to enhance collective bargaining and direct market access for farmers. Eg- Sahyadri FPO in Maharashtra – increased incomes by 30%

    Cold-Chain-as-a-Service (CCaaS) – IoT-based cold storage + logistics integration to reduce post-harvest losses

    MSP 2.0 based on 3 D’s – Decentralisation, Diversification and Digital Procurement.

    Rural Agri-Logistics Nodes under Gati Shakti Framework to develop cold chains, aggregation centers near farm gates.

    Legal Reforms – Eg- adoption Model contract farming Act by states

    Strengthening supply chain management is key to ‘Doubling Farmers Income’.

    Agriculture Inputs