Despite constitutional guarantees, legal reforms, and social movements, women in India continue to face persistent challenges that transcend historical periods and vary across geographies and social locations.
Challenges across time
Patriarchal social norms – Enduring preference for male authority and control over women. Eg- son meta preference
Control over female sexuality – Moral policing, honour-based violence, restrictions on marriage choices.
Child Marriages – 23% (NFHS-5)
Khap panchayats restricting wearing jeans etc
Unequal care burden – women spend an average of 305 minutes daily on unpaid domestic work, compared to only 98 minutes for men.
Educational discontinuity due to marriage and caregiving. Eg- Higher dropout rates among adolescent girls.
Economic marginalization
Women constitute 63% of agriculture workforce but own only 13% of land
Low FLFPR – 41% in India vs 71% in China
Violence against women – domestic violence, workplace harassment etc. Eg- Nirbhaya Case
Legal-social gap – Eg- proxy representation in PRIs (Sarpanch Pati syndrome)
Challenges across life-cycle stages
Before Birth – female foeticide
Childhood and adolescent stage – Nutrition neglect (57% anemia), high dropouts
Adulthood – Maternal health and autonomy issues. Eg- early pregnancies.
Elderly women’s vulnerability – Loneliness, poverty, and lack of social security
Challenges across space
Rural-urban divide
Limited mobility in rural areas due to safety and norms.
Safety concerns and informal employment in cities.
Caste and community-based challenges
Caste-based violence – Gender violence used as social control. Eg- Hatras rape case
Mining and infrastructure-induced displacement of Tribal women
Minority women’s double marginalization – Eg- Muslim women’s low labour force participation.
Challenges in Economic space
Concentration in low paying care and domestic work
Glass ceiling effect – discrimination and low representation at higher positions
Digital Divide – 51.6% of women aged 15 years and above in rural areas do not own a mobile phone (NSO)
Regional and cultural disparities
Regional inequality – Eg- Higher TFR in Bihar (3.0 vs national average of 1.9)
Violence in conflict zones – Eg- gang-rape and naked parade of two Kuki-Zo women in Manipur
Improvements made
Political
Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam
46% representation in PRIs
Legal-
stringent and gender-sensitive provisions in Bhartiya Nyaya Sanhita
PCPNDT and POSH Acts
Health – Institutional Deliveries increased from 78.9% (NFHS-4) to 88.6% (NFHS-5).
Education- women constitute 43% of STEM graduates.
Economic- Over 28 crore women now have personal Jan Dhan accounts.
Asset Ownership- Under PM Awas Yojana, 70% of houses are registered in the name of women.
Way Forward
Mainstreaming gender budgeting
Expand One Stop Centres (OSCs) under Mission Shakti for integrated support services
Introduce gender sensitisation modules in school curricula nationwide.
Comprehensive Healthcare
Expand coverage and financial incentives under Janani Suraksha Yojana and PM Matru Vandana Yojana
Leverage digital health tools like MP’s SUMAN SAKHI chatbot to provide real-time support to expecting mothers.
Women-Centric Urban Infrastructure- Eg- “Sakhi Niwas” hostels for working women
Thus, sustainable gender justice requires simultaneous expansion of resources, agency, and participation.