The Government of India highlighted recent achievements and policy measures related to biodiversity conservation, governance, and sustainable use under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
Biodiversity Governance Structure
India follows a three-tier biodiversity governance system:
National Biodiversity Authority at national level
State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs)
Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) at local level.
India has:
More than 2,76,653 Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs)
Over 2,72,648 People’s Biodiversity Registers (PBRs).
Note: Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) are local-level statutory bodies in India, mandated by the Biological Diversity Act of 2002.
About Biodiversity
Biodiversity refers to the variety of life forms including:
Plants
Animals
Microorganisms
Ecosystems.
Biological Diversity Act, 2002
India’s principal law for:
Biodiversity conservation
Sustainable use
Fair and equitable benefit sharing.
Biological Diversity (Amendment) Act, 2023
Promotes:
Research and innovation
Traditional knowledge-based practices
Community participation.
Important Concepts
People’s Biodiversity Register (PBR)
Local biodiversity database prepared by BMCs.
Records:
Biological resources
Traditional knowledge
Local species and habitats.
Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS)
Ensures benefits from biological resources are shared with local communities.
Nagoya Protocol
Supplementary agreement under CBD adopted in Nagoya, Japan in 2010.
Focuses on fair sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.
Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF)
Adopted during CBD COP-15 in Montreal in 2022.
Global target:
Halt and reverse biodiversity loss by 2030.
National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP 2024-2030)
Aligns India’s biodiversity goals with KMGBF.
Promotes:
Whole-of-government
Whole-of-society approach.
Key Achievements
Forests and Protected Areas
Forest and tree cover: 8.27 lakh sq. km (25.17% of geographical area).
Protected areas: More than 1,134 protected areas covering 1.88 lakh sq. km.
Species Conservation
Tiger population increased from: 2,226 (2014) to 3,682.
Community Participation
National campaign underway for digitisation of PBRs into e-PBRs.
ABS Achievements
₹145 crore released to beneficiaries till May 2026.
Benefited around 11,000 BMCs (Biodiversity Management Committees).
[2023] Consider the following statements: 1. In Biodiversity the India, Management Committees are key to the realization of the objectives of the Nagoya Protocol. 2. The Biodiversity Management Committees have important functions in determining access and benefit sharing, including the power to levy collection fees on the access of biological resources within its jurisdiction. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
PYQ Relevance[UPSC 2022] Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP26) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). What are the commitments made by India in this conference?Linkage: The PYQ tests understanding of India’s climate commitments and the policy mechanisms required to achieve them. The PYQ asks about India’s climate targets, while the article explains the climate-finance architecture needed to fund and implement those targets.
Mentor’s Comment
India’s climate finance challenge has come into sharp focus on World Environment Day amid striking estimates that the country requires nearly ₹162.5 trillion (about $2.5 trillion) by 2030 to meet its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), and around $10.1 trillion to achieve net-zero emissions by 2070. The issue has gained significance because India is no longer merely discussing climate action but is now confronting the financing architecture required to implement it at scale.
Why is India’s climate finance requirement unprecedented?
NDC Financing Requirement: India requires nearly ₹162.5 trillion (around $2.5 trillion) by 2030 to achieve its Nationally Determined Contributions.
Net-Zero Financing Need: Achieving net-zero emissions by 2070 requires approximately $10.1 trillion.
Scale of Challenge: The estimated requirement is nearly three times India’s current GDP.
Investment Imperative: Climate finance must support mitigation, adaptation, resilient infrastructure, and low-carbon development simultaneously.
How large is the financing gap in key emitting sectors?
Sectoral Concentration: Steel, cement, power, and road transport account for more than half of India’s carbon emissions.
Additional Capital Need: These four sectors alone require an additional $467 billion between 2022 and 2030.
Annual Requirement: Equivalent to roughly $54 billion annually.
GDP Share: Represents nearly 1.3% of GDP annually.
Economic Viability Constraint: Green steel and green cement remain commercially challenging without policy support and regulatory incentives.
Why is international climate finance insufficient?
Developing Country Requirement: Developing economies require nearly $5-6 trillion for climate action by 2030.
Unfulfilled Commitment: Developed countries promised $100 billion annually under climate finance commitments but failed to consistently meet the target.
Baku NCQG Commitment: The New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG) commits approximately $300 billion annually by 2035.
Adequacy Concern: India considers this commitment insufficient relative to actual financing needs.
RBI Assessment: RBI estimates India requires additional annual investment of at least 2.5% of GDP for green financing until 2030.
Domestic Mobilisation Necessity: Most climate finance will need to be raised within India rather than relying on external support.
What progress has India already made in climate finance?
Green Debt Mobilisation: India issued $55.9 billion in green, social, sustainability, and sustainability-linked debt by the end of 2024.
Rapid Growth: Represents a 186% increase since 2021.
Green Bond Dominance: Green debt constituted approximately 83% of total sustainable debt issuance.
Sectoral Allocation: Most funds flowed into clean energy and transport sectors.
Sovereign Green Bonds: Government-issued sovereign green bonds worth approximately ₹477 billion helped establish market benchmarks.
Investor Confidence: Sovereign issuance improved credibility and attracted long-term investors.
Why is institutional architecture more important than funding availability?
Instrument Availability: Green bonds, sovereign green bonds, blended finance, transition finance instruments, and Infrastructure Investment Trusts (InvITs) already exist.
Missing Ecosystem: Absence of taxonomy, guarantee mechanisms, liquidity support, and regulatory incentives constrains deployment.
Cost Differential: Green projects often face higher financing costs than conventional projects.
Capital Deployment Challenge: The principal bottleneck lies in directing capital efficiently toward climate priorities.
Institutional Deficit: Finance exists but deployment architecture remains underdeveloped.
How has the RBI emerged as a major climate-finance regulator?
Climate Risk Directions: RBI issued Climate Finance and Management of Climate Risks Directions for commercial banks and Small Finance Banks in 2025.
Risk Integration: Requires climate risks to be integrated into lending and risk-management practices.
Priority Sector Lending Recognition: Eligible green activities can qualify under Priority Sector Lending (PSL).
Sovereign Green Bond Recognition: Investments in sovereign green bonds receive regulatory recognition.
Financial Mainstreaming: Climate considerations are being embedded into core banking operations.
Why is Priority Sector Lending becoming a climate-finance lever?
PSL Scale: Banks must ensure approximately ₹4,000 crore of PSL lending for every ₹10,000 crore of loans.
Credit Reallocation Potential: Enables large-scale redirection of credit toward green sectors.
Regulatory Leverage: Provides a powerful mechanism to channel finance into climate-sensitive activities.
Adaptation Financing Opportunity: Climate adaptation projects can be incorporated into PSL frameworks.
What additional regulatory reforms has the RBI proposed?
Green Bond Collateralisation: Proposal to accept sovereign green bonds as collateral with greater flexibility.
Reserve Requirement Adjustments: Scope for modifying reserve requirements to support green credit.
Differentiated Capital Requirements: Lower capital requirements for green lending and higher requirements for carbon-intensive lending.
Climate Risk Pricing: Encourages incorporation of climate risks into financial decision-making.
Climate Stress Testing: Supports comprehensive climate stress-testing frameworks for banks.
Regulatory Sandbox: Sustainable finance initiatives have been included within RBI’s regulatory sandbox.
Climate Risk Information System: Development of systems for climate-related financial risk assessment.
Why is a Climate Finance Taxonomy critical?
Definition Standardisation: Establishes a legal and technical definition of what qualifies as “green”.
Investor Confidence: Enables verification of sustainable investments.
Why is climate adaptation finance the most neglected area?
Adaptation Deficit: Climate adaptation receives significantly less attention than mitigation.
State-Level Responsibility: Adaptation programmes are largely implemented by states.
Examples of Adaptation: Drought-proofing in Vidarbha and spring rejuvenation in Himalayan regions.
State Capacity Constraint: States often lack borrowing power and institutional capacity to access international climate finance.
Federal Finance Gap: Climate finance architecture remains insufficiently aligned with India’s federal structure.
What reforms are necessary to close India’s climate finance gap?
Climate Finance Taxonomy
Classification Framework: Finalises nationally accepted definitions of green activities.
Investment Clarity: Facilitates investment flows and prevents greenwashing
RBI-Led Green Finance Regulation
Capital Incentives: Introduces differentiated capital requirements.
Mandatory Stress Testing: Embeds climate risk assessment into banking supervision.
Expanded PSL: Includes climate adaptation alongside mitigation.
State Climate Finance Facility
Sub-National Financing: Enables states and municipalities to access green finance.
Institutional Support: Utilises Union Government, NABARD, and international sources.
Expansion of Sovereign Green Bonds
Market Deepening: Strengthens domestic green bond markets.
Foreign Capital Attraction: Encourages long-term international investment.
SLR Integration: Embeds sovereign green bonds within statutory liquidity frameworks.
Conclusion
As the UNEP notes, the world faces a climate emergency but also a financing opportunity. For India to achieve its NDC targets by 2030 and net-zero by 2070, the challenge is not merely raising capital but building institutions that can channel finance at scale. A robust climate-finance architecture will be critical to translating ambition into action and ensuring sustainable growth.
Cyclone Dana highlighted how Odisha’s mangroves protected coastal communities, strengthening the case for nature-based coastal defence over seawalls. This has renewed attention on India’s continued preference for spending ₹2,641 crore on hard infrastructure despite evidence that mangroves and other coastal ecosystems provide long-term, cost-effective protection to nearly 250 million coastal residents.
Why Are India’s Coastal Regions Becoming Increasingly Vulnerable to Climate Change?
Rising sea levels: The Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal are experiencing accelerating sea-level rise, threatening low-lying coastal districts, deltas, and island territories.
Intensifying cyclones: Climate change is increasing both the frequency and intensity of cyclones along India’s coast, the eastern seaboard (Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal) is particularly exposed.
Saline intrusion: Saltwater intrusion into freshwater aquifers and agricultural land is degrading livelihoods. This directly affects food security and drinking water in coastal communities.
Storm surges: Storm surges linked to cyclonic events are intensifying. These cause disproportionate damage to ecologically fragile coastal landscapes and displacing communities.
Compound risk: These interacting hazards do not operate independently. They multiply threats along India’s coastline, making the fragile coastal landscape both physically and economically vulnerable.
Large Population Exposure: Nearly 250 million people living along India’s coastline face direct impacts of climate-related coastal risks.
Why Are Mangroves, Seagrasses and Coral Reefs Considered Natural Coastal Defences?
Coral Reefs: The First Line of Defense
Natural Breakwaters: Coral reefs sit furthest out in the ocean and absorb up to 97% of incoming wave energy before it can reach the shore.
Friction and Depth: The jagged, complex structures of coral skeletons create immense bottom friction, forcing waves to break early and lose their destructive power
Seagrass Meadows(The Middle Buffer): Reduce coastal erosion, trap sediments and support marine biodiversity.
Erosion Control: Located in the shallow waters between reefs and the shore, seagrasses act as underwater carpets that anchor the seabed with their roots.
Sediment Trapping: Their long blades slow down water currents, forcing suspended sand and organic particles to drop to the seafloor, which actively builds up the underwater terrain.
Mangroves: The Intertidal Shield
Storm Surge Mitigation: Mangrove forests act as the final, dense barrier against extreme weather, capable of reducing storm surge heights by up to 66%.
Energy Dissipation: Their massive networks of tangled prop roots and thick trunks create a dense obstacle course that rapidly saps the remaining power of waves and incoming floods.
How Does Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) Strengthen Climate Resilience?
EbA uses biodiversity and ecosystem services to help people adapt to climate change. This reduces climate impacts while sustaining ecosystems that support fisheries, agriculture, and tourism.
Climate Risk Reduction: Uses biodiversity and ecosystem services to help people adapt to climate change.
Livelihood Protection: Supports fisheries, agriculture and tourism-dependent communities.
Long-Term Sustainability: Maintains ecosystem functions while reducing climate vulnerabilities.
Cost Effectiveness: Avoids repeated expenditure on expensive hard infrastructure maintenance.
Disaster Risk Reduction: Reduces losses from cyclones, flooding and coastal erosion.
Nature-based Solutions: Integrates conservation and restoration into adaptation planning.
What Evidence Demonstrates the Effectiveness of Ecosystem-based Adaptation?
Bhitarkanika Mangroves During Cyclone Dana
Cyclone Protection: Mangroves in Odisha’s Bhitarkanika quietly protected communities from cyclone impacts.
Natural Buffer: Reduced climate impacts while strengthening ecosystem health and livelihoods.
Global Evidence
Protection Capacity: A healthy hectare of coastal habitat protects more people per hectare than almost any other natural asset.
Sundarbans Example
Mangrove Restoration: Around 18,000 women restored 4,600 hectares of mangroves.
Cyclone Mitigation: Restoration reduced impacts of Cyclones Amphan and Yaas.
Livelihood Benefits: Strengthened local economic opportunities and social outcomes.
Kerala Example
Seawall Consequences: Armouring and erosion-control measures protected specific sites.
Adjacent Damage: Accelerated erosion in neighbouring areas, illustrating unintended consequences of hard infrastructure.
Why Does India Continue to Prefer Seawalls and Embankments?
Seawalls are massive, heavy-duty structures built directly parallel to the shoreline where the sea meets the land. They are designed as a last line of defence to protect high-value coastal areas, like cities and roads, from intense wave action. Embankments are raised earthen ridges or mounds constructed along rivers, lakes, or low-lying coastlines. They focus on holding back water from flat, expansive areas rather than fighting heavy, crashing ocean waves.
Engineering Bias: Adaptation planning strongly favours hard infrastructure such as seawalls, groynes, embankments and tetrapods.
Political Visibility: Seawalls and embankments provide visible and immediate outputs, making them attractive for governments.
Institutional Preference: Existing planning, procurement and budgeting systems are designed around construction-based projects.
Administrative Familiarity: Engineers and local authorities are more experienced with hard infrastructure than ecosystem restoration.
Perceived Certainty: Seawalls provide tangible and measurable protection, whereas ecosystem benefits are often viewed as less predictable.
What does India’s coastal adaptation spending pattern reveal about institutional bias toward hard infrastructure?
Hard protection dominance: Coastal States spent ₹2,641 crore on hard protection measures over the last decade. This reflects a stark preference for engineered measures such as seawalls, groynes, embankments, and tetrapods.
National Coastal Mission decline: Budget fell from ₹195 crore in 2022-23 to just ₹50 crore in 2024-25.
PSL and visibility bias: Fragile institutional mandates, weak monitoring, and a preference for visible infrastructure often leave ecosystem-based interventions buried within broader sectoral programmes rather than recognised as adaptation in their own right.
Reporting gap: Adaptation benefits of coastal ecosystems are rarely assessed or recorded separately, making India’s coastal EbA portfolio appear much weaker than it is.
What Prevents Ecosystem-based Adaptation from Becoming Mainstream Policy?
Fragmented Terminology: EbA overlaps with Nature-based Solutions (NbS), Coastal Adaptation (EbCA), Ecosystem-based Disaster Risk Reduction (Eco-DRR) and related concepts.
Classification Challenges: Similar interventions are recorded under conservation, restoration or management categories instead of adaptation.
Weak Monitoring: Limited mechanisms exist to measure adaptation outcomes.
Institutional Fragmentation: EbA interventions remain dispersed across multiple schemes and sectors.
Inadequate Recognition: Policymakers often fail to identify adaptation benefits generated by ecosystem restoration.
Limited Financing: Absence of dedicated adaptation financing restricts scale and replication.
Why Does Classification of Ecosystem-based Adaptation Matter?
Policy Recognition: Enables clear identification of adaptation actions.
Monitoring Frameworks: Facilitates tracking and evaluation of adaptation outcomes.
Financing Access: Strengthens eligibility for climate adaptation funding.
Evidence Generation: Supports measurement of climate resilience benefits.
Policy Integration: Ensures ecosystem restoration becomes part of mainstream adaptation planning.
How Does the Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats and Tangible Incomes (MISHTI) Reflect the Potential of EbA?
MISHTI is a dedicated central government scheme in India aimed at reviving and expanding the country’s mangrove cover while generating sustainable livelihoods for coastal communities. Announced during the Union Budget 2023-24 and officially launched on World Environment Day (5 June 2023), it serves as a core part of India’s strategy to build a nature-based “bio-shield” against climate change.
Programme Objective: Targets restoration of 540 sq km of mangroves across nine States.
Climate Resilience: Enhances natural protection against coastal hazards.
Livelihood Support: Generates economic opportunities linked to ecosystem restoration.
Current Limitation: Primarily framed as a restoration programme rather than a climate adaptation initiative.
What Policy Reforms Are Needed to Mainstream Ecosystem-based Adaptation?
Policy Integration: Embeds EbA within coastal planning and adaptation frameworks.
Dedicated Financing: Expands budgetary support for ecosystem-based interventions.
Outcome Monitoring: Develops indicators for adaptation benefits.
Institutional Coordination: Harmonises fragmented schemes and programmes.
Climate Accounting: Recognises ecosystem restoration as an adaptation investment.
Natural Capital Approach: Treats ecosystems as strategic climate-resilience assets.
Conclusion
The choice before India is not merely between two adaptation techniques but between two development pathways. While seawalls offer localised and short-term protection, mangroves and other coastal ecosystems provide durable climate resilience, biodiversity conservation and livelihood security. Mainstreaming Ecosystem-based Adaptation will be critical for protecting India’s 250 million coastal residents in an era of accelerating climate change.
Value Addition
Nature-based Solutions (NbS)
Definition: Nature-based Solutions (NbS) is an umbrella concept defined by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as actions to protect, sustainably manage, and restore natural or modified ecosystems. These actions address societal challenges, such as climate change, food security, water security, human health, and disaster risk, while simultaneously providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits.
India’s NDC 2022 references NbS for carbon sequestration through forests.
Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA)
Definition: Use of biodiversity and ecosystem services to help people adapt to adverse impacts of climate change.
Key Features
Ecosystem conservation
Ecosystem restoration
Climate risk reduction
Community participation
Livelihood enhancement
Disaster resilience
Ecosystem-based Coastal Adaptation (EbCA)
EbCA is a subset of Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA). It focuses specifically on helping coastal communities adapt to the long-term, gradual changes brought by climate change.
The Core Strategy: It uses coastal biodiversity and ecosystem services to help human societies adapt to climate pressures.
Primary Targets: Sea-level rise, coastal erosion, saltwater intrusion into agricultural land, and changing ocean temperatures.
Example: Dynamically planting salt-tolerant mangrove species along an eroding coastline. As sea levels rise, the mangroves naturally trap sediment, raising the land.
Ecosystem-based Disaster Risk Reduction (Eco-DRR)
Eco-DRR focuses on using ecosystems to reduce the immediate impact, frequency, and severity of sudden natural disasters.
The Core Strategy: It manages and restores ecosystems to act as physical shock absorbers against extreme physical hazards.
Primary Targets: Sudden disasters like cyclones, tsunamis, massive storm surges, and flash floods.
Example: Protecting an offshore coral reef. When a cyclone strikes, the reef acts as a natural breakwater, absorbing up to 97% of the wave energy before it crashes into coastal towns, directly reducing casualties and property destruction.
Ecological Bio-Shields:
A bio-shield is a dense strip of vegetation planted along a coast to act as a barrier against natural hazards.
Casuarina trees, mangroves, and coastal palms are frequently used together to create multi-tiered, living walls that trap flying debris and slow down incoming water.If
Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM):
India’s ICZM project (World Bank-assisted) aimed to address coastal erosion, pollution, and habitat loss through integrated planning.
EbA mainstreaming is its natural evolution.
PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2022] Explain the causes and effects of coastal erosion in India. What are the available coastal management techniques for combating the hazard?
Linkage: The PYQ examines coastal vulnerability and compares different coastal protection approaches, including structural and ecosystem-based measures. The article extends the PYQ by assessing whether ecosystem-based solutions such as mangroves can provide more sustainable and cost-effective coastal protection than conventional seawalls and embankments.
The visit of Rabi Lamichhane, chief of Nepal’s ruling Rashtriya Swatantra Party (RSP), to India has emerged as the most significant political engagement between the two countries since Nepal’s new government assumed office. This comes at a time when Prime Minister Balen Shah has imposed restrictions on foreign travel and prioritized domestic governance, resulting in limited high-level diplomatic exchanges.
Why Does Lamichhane’s Visit Mark a Turning Point in India-Nepal Relations?
Political Transition
Emerging Leadership: Rabi Lamichhane represents a new generation of political actors challenging Nepal’s traditional political establishment.
Changing Political Landscape: Nepal’s political discourse is increasingly shaped by younger leaders and new political formations.
Generational Shift: Nepal’s median age is approximately 38 years, while decision-making is gradually moving towards younger leadership groups.
Diplomatic Significance
Highest-Level Engagement: Lamichhane’s visit constitutes the most significant political engagement since Nepal’s new government came to power.
Deadlock Resolution: The visit helps break a period of limited diplomatic interaction between the two countries.
Recognition of New Nepal: India acknowledges that future engagement cannot remain confined to traditional political actors.
Priority Signal from India
Strategic Importance: Prime Minister Narendra Modi conveyed that Nepal remains India’s “priority partner.”
Future Cooperation: India expressed willingness to elevate bilateral relations to “greater heights.”
Continuity in Engagement: New Delhi signalled that engagement will continue irrespective of changes in Nepal’s domestic political landscape.
How Is Nepal’s New Political Leadership Different from the Traditional Establishment?
Governance-First Approach
Domestic Prioritisation: Prime Minister Balen Shah has emphasized governance reforms over foreign policy activism.
Foreign Travel Restriction: Shah imposed a self-declared restriction on foreign travel during the initial phase of his tenure.
Administrative Focus: Greater emphasis on domestic accountability and service delivery.
Protocol Changes
Rank-Based Engagement: Shah declared that he would not meet officials below his own rank.
Departure from Convention: Represents a shift from established diplomatic practices.
Assertion of Sovereignty: Reflects increasing confidence among Nepal’s new political leadership.
Anti-Establishment Politics
Political Disruption: New political actors challenge long-established parties.
Youth Mobilisation: Younger voters increasingly favour alternatives to traditional elites.
Institutional Reconfiguration: Nepal’s political system is experiencing a broader transition.
Why Can India No Longer Depend Solely on Traditional Political Networks in Nepal?
Historical Pattern
Elite-Centric Engagement: India traditionally dealt with established political leaders and long-term political actors.
Political Continuity: Familiar actors often alternated in government, facilitating predictable diplomacy.
Institutional Comfort: New Delhi developed extensive networks with traditional parties.
Changing Political Reality
New Stakeholders: Emerging leaders possess different political priorities and constituencies.
Regional Competition: Nepal has become an important arena of India-China competition.
Why Is Connectivity Emerging as India’s Most Effective Diplomatic Tool?
Development Partnership: Strengthens economic integration, delivers infrastructure benefits, and reinforces India’s role as a trusted development partner.
Seamless Connectivity: Expands road, rail, air and digital links, facilitating trade, mobility and regional integration.
Civilisational Linkages: Leverages shared cultural and religious heritage to strengthen people-to-people ties and soft power.
Strategic Advantage: Generates goodwill, counters growing Chinese influence, and promotes long-term bilateral stability.
What Should Be India’s Approach Towards the New Nepal?
Respect for Sovereignty: Adopt a non-interference approach, engage all political stakeholders, and treat Nepal as an equal partner.
Broad-Based Engagement: Build ties beyond traditional elites through outreach to emerging leaders, youth groups and institutions.
Connectivity and Development: Expand infrastructure, digital integration and economic cooperation to deepen mutual interdependence.
Trust-Based Diplomacy: Strengthen public goodwill, address historical mistrust and replace “big brother” perceptions with a partnership model.
Conclusion
As Nepal’s political landscape evolves, India must move beyond historical ties and engage a new generation of leaders through respect, trust and development partnership. An approach based on sovereignty, connectivity and equal partnership will be key to sustaining strong India-Nepal relations in a changing geopolitical environment.
Value Addition
India-Nepal Border Facts
Border Length: 1,751 km open international border.
Indian States Sharing Border
Uttarakhand
Uttar Pradesh
Bihar
West Bengal
Sikkim
Major India-Nepal Connectivity and Infrastructure Projects
Jayanagar-Kurtha-Bijalpura Railway: Connects Jayanagar (Bihar, India) with Kurtha and Bijalpura (Madhesh Province, Nepal). It is Nepal’s first broad-gauge passenger railway and strengthens cross-border trade, mobility and regional integration.
Motihari-Amlekhgunj Petroleum Pipeline: Connects Motihari (Bihar, India) with Amlekhgunj (Nepal). It is South Asia’s first cross-border petroleum pipeline and ensures reliable fuel supply while reducing transportation costs and leakages.
Arun-III Hydropower Project: Located on the Arun River in Sankhuwasabha district of eastern Nepal. Developed by India’s SJVN Ltd, it strengthens bilateral energy cooperation and facilitates power exports to India.
Cross-Border Transmission Lines: Includes the Muzaffarpur (Bihar)-Dhalkebar (Nepal) transmission line and new high-capacity corridors. These facilitate electricity trade and support Nepal’s emergence as a power-exporting nation.
Integrated Check Posts (ICPs): Operational at Raxaul-Birgunj, Jogbani-Biratnagar, Sunauli-Bhairahawa and Nepalgunj Road-Nepalgunj. They streamline customs clearance, trade logistics and border management.
Terai Road Project: India-assisted road network across Nepal’s Terai region improves connectivity along the India-Nepal border and enhances economic integration.
These projects aim to connect Nepal’s major economic centres with Indian transport networks.
Important Border Areas Frequently in News
Kalapani: Strategic Himalayan region claimed by both India and Nepal; located near the India-Nepal-China tri-junction.
Lipulekh Pass: Important trade and pilgrimage route connecting India with Tibet; frequently features in territorial disputes.
Limpiyadhura: Claimed by Nepal as part of its territory and included in Nepal’s revised political map in 2020.
Susta: Border dispute area along the Gandak River due to changes in river course.
Important Border Crossing Points
Raxaul-Birgunj: Nepal’s busiest trade gateway; handles a major share of bilateral trade.
Sunauli-Bhairahawa: Key route for trade and Buddhist tourism.
Jogbani-Biratnagar: Major commercial corridor in eastern Nepal.
Banbasa-Mahendranagar: Important western border crossing.
Panitanki-Kakarbhitta: Connects eastern Nepal with West Bengal and the Siliguri Corridor.
PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2022] “India is an age-old friend of Sri Lanka.” Discuss India’s role in the recent crisis in Sri Lanka in the light of the preceding statement.
Linkage: The PYQ tests India’s neighbourhood policy, management of bilateral relations, and balancing of strategic interests in South Asia. Similar to Sri Lanka, the article examines how India must adapt its diplomacy towards a changing Nepal while preserving influence amid growing Chinese presence and shifting domestic politics.
India and the United Kingdom launched the Critical Minerals Global Supply Chain Observatory (GSCO) to strengthen cooperation in critical minerals, clean energy, and resilient supply chains.
Key Highlights
Observatory launched: Critical Minerals Global Supply Chain Observatory (GSCO).
Objective: Monitor and analyse global critical mineral supply chains using data-driven systems.
Aim:
Expand cooperation in:
Critical minerals
Technology sharing
Clean energy transition
Supply chain resilience
Jointly operated by:
Technology Innovation in Exploration and Mining Foundation (TEXMiN)
Indian Institute of Technology (ISM) Dhanbad
University of Cambridge
First announced during:
Visit of Keir Starmer to India in October 2025.
Indian side:
Union Mines Minister G. Kishan Reddy highlighted the role of the initiative in strengthening global supply chains.
Other areas discussed during India-U.K. talks:
Trade
Defence
AI
Climate cooperation
Technology
Education
People-to-people ties
External Affairs Minister: S. Jaishankar held discussions with U.K. Foreign Secretary Yvette Cooper.
What are Critical Minerals?
Critical minerals are minerals essential for:
Clean energy technologies
Electronics
Defence manufacturing
Electric vehicles
Renewable energy systems
Examples: Lithium, Cobalt, Nickel, Graphite, and Rare Earth elements
Importance: Supply disruptions can affect economic and national security.
[2025] Consider the following statements: I. India has joined the Minerals Security Partnership as a member. II. India is a resource-rich country in all the 30 critical minerals that it has identified. III. The Parliament in 2023 has amended the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 empowering the Central Government to exclusively auction mining lease and composite license for certain critical minerals. Which of the statements given above are correct?
Prime Minister Narendra Modi inaugurated the first-ever World Yogasana Championship in Ahmedabad through a video message.
Key Highlights
Event: First World Yogasana Championship 2026.
Venue: Ahmedabad, Gujarat.
Significance: Marks a new phase in the global recognition of Yogasana as a competitive sport.
Prime Minister’s remarks:
Expressed confidence that Yogasana may eventually be included in:
Olympics
Other multi-sport international events.
Timing:
Championship organized ahead of:
International Day of Yoga celebrated annually on 21 June.
Theme of International Yoga Day 2026: “Yoga for Healthy Ageing”.
Global support for Yoga:
Around 190 countries supported India’s proposal at the United Nations for International Yoga Day.
“Yoga 365” campaign:
Initiative of the Ministry of Ayush to encourage daily yoga practice.
Opportunities highlighted:
Careers for:
Athletes
Trainers
Sports scientists
Researchers
Event managers
About International Day of Yoga
Declared by the United Nations
First celebrated on 21 June 2015.
Origin: Proposal introduced by India in the UN General Assembly in 2014.
Objective: Promote physical, mental, and spiritual well-being through yoga.
[2025] Consider the following statements in respect of the first Kho Kho World Cup: I. The event was held in Delhi, India. II. Indian men beat Nepal with a score of 78-40 in the final to become the World Champion in men category. III. Indian women beat Nepal with a score of 54-36 in the final to become the World Champion in women category. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) facilitated the first-ever sea shipment of botanical-infused ready-to-cook millet functional foods from Karnataka to New Zealand.
Key Highlights
Export consignment:
One metric tonne of value-added millet-based functional foods.
APEDA-supported networking helped secure export orders from New Zealand.
Significance:
Expands global market access for Indian millet products.
Promotes value-added agri exports.
Expected to improve incomes of millet-growing farmers.
Strengthens India’s agri-export ecosystem.
About APEDA
The Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) is a statutory body established by the Government of India under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry.
Headquartered in New Delhi, APEDA is responsible for developing, promoting, and regulating the export of agricultural and processed food products from India.
[2018] With reference to organic farming in India, consider the following statements: 1.‘The National ‘Programme for Organic Production’ (NPOP) is operated under the guidelines and ‘directions of the Union Ministry of Rural Development. 2.‘The Agricultural and Processed Food Product Export Development Authority ‘(APEDA) functions as the Secretariat for the implementation of NPOP. 3.Sikkim has become India’s first fully organic State. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Scientists from the Centre for Nano and Soft Matter Sciences and collaborating institutions discovered how a catalyst changes its structure during water electrolysis for green hydrogen production. The study was published in Materials Horizons.
Key Highlights
Researchers studied:
Molybdenum carbide (Mo₂C), an earth-abundant catalyst used in hydrogen production.
Molybdenum Carbide is a compound made of molybdenum and carbon that acts as an efficient catalyst in hydrogen production and other industrial chemical reactions
Key Features
Considered an earth-abundant catalyst because molybdenum is more available and cheaper than precious metals like platinum.
Exhibits platinum-like catalytic properties in some reactions.
Has high thermal stability and good electrical conductivity.
Role in Hydrogen Production
Mo₂C is widely studied for: Hydrogen Evolution Reaction (HER) in water splitting.
Electrochemical production of green hydrogen.
Improving efficiency while reducing dependence on expensive noble-metal catalysts.
About Hydrogen Evolution Reaction (HER)
HER is the electrochemical reaction where hydrogen gas is produced from water during electrolysis.
It occurs at the cathode. (The cathode is the electrode where reduction occurs and hydrogen gas is produced.)
Note: Anode: The anode is the electrode where oxidation occurs. In water electrolysis, oxygen is produced at the anode through the Oxygen Evolution Reaction (OER).
Efficient catalysts are required to reduce energy consumption and improve hydrogen production efficiency.
About Green Hydrogen
Green hydrogen is hydrogen produced using renewable energy sources through electrolysis of water.
It is considered a clean fuel because it emits no carbon dioxide during use.
[2023] With reference to green hydrogen, consider the following statements: 1. It can be used directly as a fuel for internal combustion. 2. It can be blended with natural gas and used as fuel for heat or power generation. 3. It can be used in the hydrogen fuel cell to run vehicles. How many of the above statements are correct?
Mera Yuva Bharat (MY Bharat) received the Guinness World Records title for the “Most Users to Take an Online Quiz in One Week”. The recognition was awarded after 390,812 participants successfully completed the quiz during the assessment period.
Key Highlights
The record was achieved through the Viksit Bharat Young Leaders’ Dialogue (VBYLD) Quiz.
Quiz objective: Promote youth participation and awareness regarding Viksit Bharat@2047.
Conducted through:
MY Bharat portal under the Department of Youth Affairs, Ministry of Youth Affairs & Sports.
Participation:
Over 50.42 lakh youth participated.
Covered all 28 States and 8 Union Territories.
Guinness assessment period:
25 October to 31 October 2025.
During the assessment:
More than 8.39 lakh quiz participations recorded.
390,812 participants certified after digital forensic audits and verification.
MY Bharat registrations:
2.19 crore registrations within three years.
Union Minister:
Mansukh Mandaviya stated that nearly 65% of India’s population is below 35 years of age.
Significance:
Demonstrates digital youth engagement.
Encourages volunteering, leadership development, experiential learning, and community participation.
Supports the vision of Viksit Bharat@2047.
About Mera Yuva Bharat (MY Bharat)
Launched by the Ministry of Youth Affairs & Sports.
Objective: To provide a technology-driven institutional platform for youth development and participation.
Focus Areas
Leadership development
Volunteerism
Skill enhancement
Community participation
Nation building initiatives
[2018] Consider the following statements : Human capital formation as a concept is better explained in terms of a process which enables 1. individuals of a country to accumulate more capital. 2. increasing the knowledge, skill levels and capacities of the people of the country. 3. accumulation of tangible wealth. 4. accumulation of intangible wealth. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
The Government of India highlighted major achievements in environmental protection, biodiversity conservation, climate action, and sustainable development over the last 12 years.
Forest and Green Cover
India’s forest and tree cover reached 8.27 lakh sq. km (25.17% of geographical area).
Forest carbon stock stands at 30.43 billion tonnes.
Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority undertook over 3.2 lakh hectares of compensatory afforestation between FY 2020-21 and 2024-25.
“Ek Ped Maa Ke Naam” campaign planted 262.4 crore saplings till December 2025.
River Rejuvenation
Namami Gange Programme launched for restoration of the River Ganga.
524 projects worth ₹43,030 crore sanctioned till February 2026.
Industrial BOD load reduced from 26 TPD (2017) to 10.75 TPD (2024).
Gangetic dolphin population estimated at 6,327.
Wetland Conservation
Wetland conservation strengthened under the National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Ecosystems (NPCA).
India’s Ramsar sites increased from 26 in 2014 to 99 by April 2026.
Mangrove and Coastal Ecosystems
Mangrove cover increased from 4,628 sq. km (2013) to 4,992 sq. km (2023).
Blue Flag certified beaches increased to 18 in 2025-26.
Wildlife Conservation
Project Tiger: Tiger population increased from 2,226 (2014) to 3,682 (2022).
Project Cheetah: India’s cheetah population reached 53.
Asiatic lion population increased to 891 in 2025.
India hosts nearly 60% of the global wild Asian elephant population.
Waste Management and Circular Economy
Solid waste processing increased from 17% (2014) to over 77% (2024).
1,138 dumpsites remediated across 1,048 cities.
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) frameworks expanded for plastics, batteries, tyres, e-waste, and used oil.
Climate and Global Leadership
India achieved its target of reducing emissions intensity by 33-35% from 2005 levels ahead of schedule.
Non-fossil sources account for 52.57% of installed power capacity (February 2026).
Major global initiatives led by India:
International Solar Alliance
Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure
International Big Cat Alliance
Mission LiFE
[2025] Consider the following statements: Statement I: Circular economy reduces the emissions of greenhouse gases. Statement II: Circular economy reduces the use of raw materials as inputs. Statement III : Circular economy reduces wastage in the production process. Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
[A] Both Statement II and Statement III are correct and both of them explain Statement I
[B] Both Statement II and Statement III are correct but only one of them explains Statement I
[C] Only one of the Statements II and III is correct and that explains Statement I
[D] Neither Statement II nor Statement III is correct
