According to the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), digital payments registered a 12.6% year-on-year rise as of March 31, 2024, as measured by the RBI’s Digital Payments Index (DPI).
About RBI’s Digital Payments Index (DPI):
Launched by: Reserve Bank of India (RBI) in January 2021
Purpose: Measures the extent of digital payment adoption across India
Base Period: March 2018 (Index value = 100)
Release Frequency:Semi-annually (with a 4-month lag)
Objective: Track usage, infrastructure, and growth in digital payments
Key Parameters (with Weightage): These evaluate infrastructure readiness, transaction volume, user adoption, and innovation.
Payment Enablers – 25%
Payment Infrastructure – Demand Side – 10%
Payment Infrastructure – Supply Side – 15%
Payment Performance – 45%
Consumer Centricity – 5%
Growth Highlight:
Growth Trends in RBI-DPI: DPI grew nearly 5 times from 100 in March 2018 to 493.22 in March 2025, reflecting India’s rapid digital payment adoption.
Nearly 5× increase from the base value in 7 years
Driven by rapid expansion of Unified Payments Interface (UPI), mobile wallets, and QR code infrastructure
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following countries:
I. United Arab Emirates II. France III. Germany IV. Singapore V. Bangladesh
How many countries amongst the above are there other than India where international merchant payments are accepted under UPI?”
Options: (a) Only two (b) Only three* (c) Only four (d) All the five
The National Cooperation Policy (NCP) 2025 recently unveiled by Union Home and Cooperation Minister Amit Shah has drawn criticisms from SKM (Samyukt Kisan Morcha).
Also in news:
The Union Cabinet has also approved a ₹2,000 crore Central Sector Scheme to aid National Cooperative Development Corporation (NCDC) from 2025–26 to 2028–29.
NCDC was established in 1963 as a statutory Corporation under Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare (now functions under the Ministry of Cooperation since 2021).
About Cooperatives in India:
What is it: A cooperative is a voluntary, autonomous association of individuals who unite to meet common economic, social, or cultural needs through a jointly-owned and democratically-controlled enterprise.
Key Principles:
One member, one vote: Equal say in governance, regardless of financial contribution.
Based on collective benefit, democratic control, and mutual aid.
Historical Evolution:
1904 & 1912: Cooperative Acts laid the foundation for the cooperative movement in India.
Post-independence: Emphasis on rural credit, dairy, and agriculture cooperatives (e.g., Amul).
Key Institutions: NABARD (National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development), NCDC (National Cooperative Development Corporation).
Constitutional & Legal Backing:
97th Constitutional Amendment (2011):
Article 19(1)(c): Right to form cooperative societies.
N4S: UPSC often picks such topics not just for data recall but to test empathy, societal understanding, and connection between systems — as seen in the 2023 GS1 question on suicides among young women. Where aspirants usually falter is in treating these as ‘soft’ topics, often lacking structure or specific multi-level analysis. This article changes that. It dives deep into real causes like academic pressure, social media, and stigma (see: “Immediate Triggers”, “Stigmatization”), and ties them with structural flaws like poor mental health infrastructure and societal taboos (“At Institutional Level”, “At Societal Level”). The piece doesn’t stop at problems. It shows state-level best practices (like Kerala’s 2013 policy or Tamil Nadu’s “Mano Amma”), making your answers richer and anchored in reality. One very special feature is how this article connects mental health to constitutional rights and social justice — like linking suicide decriminalization with the Mental Healthcare Act, 2017 and discrimination with SC/ST atrocities. It also humanizes the issue by opening with lived tragedies, making it hard to read without feeling the weight of the problem. This emotional-societal-policy thread is what UPSC expects, and this article delivers.
This article explores India’s growing mental health crisis, especially among the youth, by connecting personal, social, and systemic factors. UPSC often frames such issues to test empathy, governance insight, and constitutional understanding, as seen in the 2023 GS1 question on suicides among young women.
Aspirants often treat these topics as emotional rather than structural. This article goes deeper. It examines immediate triggers like academic stress and social media, and links them with larger issues such as poor mental health infrastructure and social stigma. It highlights policy efforts like Kerala’s 2013 framework and Tamil Nadu’s Mano Amma initiative. A key strength is how it ties mental health to constitutional rights, decriminalisation under the Mental Healthcare Act, and social justice. This layered approach helps aspirants write more grounded and impactful answers.
PYQ ANCHORING
GS 1: Explain why suicide among young women is increasing in Indian Society. [2023]
MICROTHEME: Women and Associated concerns
Two bright students. Two lives lost. And one powerful reminder from the Supreme Court — even the prestige of IIT-Delhi can’t be a shield against justice. The 2023 suicides of two students from SC/ST communities have cracked open a painful truth: our top institutions are silently breeding mental health crises.
Behind the glowing resumes and cutthroat competition, many students are battling pressure, isolation, and stigma — alone and unheard.
So, the questions to ponder over are: What’s really happening inside our most celebrated classrooms? Are we ignoring the emotional toll in the race for excellence? And how long will brilliance be measured by burnout?
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO MENTAL HEALTH PROBLEMS AMONG STUDENTS//MAINS
Category
Details
Examples / Research
Immediate Triggers / Precipitating Factors
Sudden adverse life events such as exam failure, financial loss, grief, or public humiliation. These can precipitate mental breakdowns or suicidal ideation.
Suicides in IITs and Kota due to failure or pressure; reports of self-harm after results announcements.
Influence of Social Media
Excessive or passive use of social media is linked to poor sleep quality, cyberbullying, low self-esteem, and FOMO (fear of missing out), increasing anxiety and depression.
A 2018 British study (University of Glasgow) found a link between disrupted sleep from social media and depression.
Social Isolation & Loneliness
Loneliness may stem from dysfunctional family relationships, lack of peer support, bullying, and confusion around gender identity or puberty-related changes.
Adolescents facing gender dysphoria or from broken families often report higher rates of anxiety and depression.
Academic Pressure & Parental Expectations
Constant pressure to perform, intense competition, and the fear of letting down parents who have made financial sacrifices can result in burnout, anxiety, and depression.
High suicide rates reported in Kota coaching centers due to overwhelming academic expectations.
Predisposing Biological Factors
Genetic predispositions (e.g., family history of depression or suicide), neurochemical imbalances, and chronic illnesses can heighten vulnerability.
Studies show impulsivity and mental disorders are higher in students with family history of mental illness.
Personality & Disability Factors
Traits like perfectionism, impulsivity, and poor coping mechanisms; physical disabilities may lead to social exclusion or frustration.
Students with learning disabilities are more prone to depression due to lack of understanding and peer rejection.
Stigmatization
Fear of judgment or being labeled prevents students from seeking timely help. This allows issues to worsen before intervention.
Studies find stigma is a major reason students avoid counseling even when services are available.
ROLE OF SOCIAL PREJUDICES AND TABOO IN MENTAL HEALTH
At individual level- The stress to cope up with the present day materialism, consumerism has resulted in higher levels of depression and associated issues like high blood pressure, heart issues etc. According to a Lancet study, between 1990 to 2017, one in seven people from India have suffered from mental illness ranging from depression, anxiety to severe conditions such as schizophrenia.
At family level- Change in the family structure, rise of nuclear families and individualism has impacted traditional family support resulting in isolation and a lack of emotional support during difficult times..
At societal levels-
Conforming to the social norms(‘Log kya kahenge’ approach)associated with mental illness prevents people from seeking help.
Society in general has stereotyped views about mental illness and how it affects people. Many people believe that people with mental ill health are violent and dangerous, when in fact they are more at risk of being attacked or harming themselves than harming other people.
Further, Social discrimination as seen in recent events like mob lynching, beating of Dalit youth for keeping moustache impact the mental health of marginalised sections of society due to rise in fear and anxiety.
At institutional level-
Violations of human rights have been reported in mental asylums and also at homes and places of traditional healing. In India, mental hospitals still practice certain obscure practices that violate human rights. Further poor infrastructure such as closed structures, a lack of maintenance, unclean toilets and sleeping areas etc clearly violate the basic human right to a life with dignity and add to the stigma. For example, Erwadi Tragedy: In 2001, 28 patients who were chained at a home for mentally-ill people died after a fire that engulfed the home in Erwadi village in the Ramanathapuram district (Tamil Nadu).
The situation is exacerbated by the media. Media reports often link mental illness with violence, or portray people with mental health problems as dangerous, criminal, evil, or very disabled and unable to live normal, fulfilled lives.
On vulnerable sections:
Impact on Women- Gender inequality and patriarchy coupled with Illiteracy, poverty and lack of awareness restricts the access to mental healthcare and leads to deterioration of mental health of women.
Impact on elderly- Lack of family support , changing patterns of relationships i.e movement from joint to nuclear families and social stigma associated with mental health leads to depression, stress and leads to rise in suicides among elderly.
Impact on children- Increased competition, peer pressure and exposure to indecent content on social media has increased the stress and depression levels among children.
COMMITTEES THAT SHAPED INDIA’S MENTAL HEALTH FRAMEWORK//PRELIMS
While mental health in India remained under the radar for decades, a series of expert committees quietly laid the groundwork for reform. From decriminalizing suicide to building community-based care, these government-appointed panels have shaped policy, law, and public health strategies over time.
Year
Committee / Report
Purpose / Focus
Key Recommendations
2009–2013
Mental Health Care Bill Drafting Committee
Drafting of the Mental Healthcare Act, 2017
Right to mental healthcare, Advance Directives, decriminalization of suicide, creation of Mental Health Review Boards
2011
Keshav Desiraju Committee
Reforming the National Mental Health Programme (NMHP)
Strengthen DMHP, community-based care, train general healthcare providers, integrate mental health into primary care
2014
National Mental Health Policy Group
Formulating the National Mental Health Policy
Rights-based approach, inclusive care for vulnerable populations, decentralization, inter-sectoral collaboration
2021–22
NITI Aayog Health Reforms Committee
Broader health sector reform with mental health focus
Increase funding, digitize mental health services, recognize mental health under NCDs, national mental health data surveys
2022
Parliamentary Standing Committee on Health & Welfare
Review of mental health care systems and implementation of MHCA
Mental health literacy in schools, integration with Ayushman Bharat, more professionals, inclusion in national health indicators
State-Level Best Practices in Mental Health Care
State
Initiative
Key Features / Impact
Kerala
Mental Health Policy (2013)
First state to launch a dedicated mental health policy Emphasizes community-based care and integration with primary health services
Tamil Nadu
“Mano Amma” Scheme
Provides free psychiatric treatment Includes free medicines, counseling, and awareness through public hospitals
Maharashtra
“Mansapurti Yojana”
Organizes mental health camps in rural areas Focuses on outreach, early detection, and referrals via local health workers
WAY FORWARD: MORE SUNLIGHT. MORE CANDOR. NO SHAME.
1. Individual Level
Speak Up: Share personal stories to normalize mental health conversations.
Connect: Build peer-support networks for listening and healing.
2. Society Level
Break the Taboo: Run awareness campaigns across media.
Family First: Encourage open dialogue in homes and communities.
3. Vulnerable Sections
Empower the Marginalized: Enforce SC/ST (PoA) Act, ensure financial and legal support for women and minorities.
4. Students
Start Early: Add mental health to school curricula.
Counsel Proactively: Regular sessions in schools, colleges, and workplaces.
5. Infrastructure
Upgrade & Expand: Strengthen psychiatric departments under NMHP.
Close the Gap: Train more psychiatrists—India needs 10x the current number.
6. Legal Implementation
Enforce the Law: Roll out Mental Health Care Act effectively—focus on rights, access, and autonomy.
7. Community-Led Solutions
Scale Models Like Atmiyata: Train local volunteers for frontline mental care.
#BACK2BASICS:Legislative Framework of Mental Health in India
India’s approach to mental health has evolved significantly—from custodial care under colonial laws to a rights-based framework focused on dignity, autonomy, and inclusion.
1. The Indian Lunacy Act, 1912
Colonial-era law based on the British Lunacy Act of 1890.
Focused on custodial care and institutionalization of the mentally ill.
Prioritized public safety over individual rights.
Eventually repealed due to being outdated and stigmatizing.
2. Mental Health Act, 1987
Replaced the 1912 Act.
Aimed to regulate admission and treatment of mentally ill persons in psychiatric hospitals.
Key Features:
Introduced the term “mental illness” instead of “lunacy.”
Provided for the setting up of Mental Health Authorities at central and state levels.
Focus remained on institutional care, with limited emphasis on rights or community-based treatment.
Criticized for lacking alignment with international human rights standards (like the UNCRPD).
3. Mental Healthcare Act, 2017 (In force since May 29, 2018)
Landmark rights-based legislation aligned with the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD).
Repealed the 1987 Act.
Key Provisions:
Right to Access Mental Healthcare: Every person has the right to affordable, quality mental health services.
Decriminalization of Suicide: Suicide attempts are presumed to be due to severe stress; individuals are to be provided care, not punishment (Section 115).
Advance Directives: Individuals can decide how they want to be treated in the event of mental illness.
Nominated Representative: A person of choice can be appointed to take decisions during a mental health crisis.
Mental Health Review Boards: Established to protect rights and review decisions related to admissions and treatment.
Free Services for the Poor: Mental health services are to be provided free of cost for persons below the poverty line, even in private establishments (if funded by the government).
Integration with General Healthcare: Mandates mental health services at all levels — from primary to tertiary care.
4. Related Legislation Supporting Mental Health Rights
Rights of Persons with Disabilities (RPWD) Act, 2016: Recognizes mental illness as a specified disability and ensures equality and non-discrimination in education, employment, and public life.
Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, 2012: Mandates psychological support for child survivors.
SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989: Offers protective provisions for marginalized communities facing mental trauma due to caste-based violence.
India’s mental health legislative framework has shifted from institutional control to individual empowerment and dignity. The Mental Healthcare Act, 2017 is a progressive leap forward, but its effective implementation remains the real challenge.
MOCK DROP
Despite increasing awareness, suicide continues to be a leading cause of death in India, especially among the youth. Examine the role of mental health infrastructure, societal attitudes, and policy implementation in addressing this crisis. Suggest a multi-pronged strategy to reduce suicide rates in the country.
[UPSC 2019] Discuss the causes of depletion of mangroves and explain their importance in maintaining coastal ecology.
Linkage: The article explicitly details the importance of mangroves, stating they are “critical in India’s pursuit of climate resilience, biodiversity conservation, and the empowerment of coastal communities”. It explains their role as “natural barriers, protecting coastal communities from cyclones, tidal surges, and erosion”, and their significance in “biodiversity conservation”. The article also discusses the threats leading to their “depletion,” such as “urban expansion, aquaculture, pollution, and changing climate patterns”.
Mentor’s Comment: India’s mangrove forests have come into focus due to growing efforts to restore and protect them amid increasing threats from urban expansion, climate change, and pollution. Recent successful restoration projects in Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and Mumbai, along with support from government missions and private partners, highlight India’s growing role in mangrove conservation. These forests are vital for climate resilience, coastal protection, and biodiversity, making their preservation a national priority.
Today’s editorial analyses India’s growing efforts to restore mangrove forests. This topic is important for GS Paper III (Environment) in the UPSC mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Recently, mangrove restoration efforts in Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and Mumbai have been successful.
What is the extent of Mangroves in India?
India’s total mangrove cover is 4,992 sq km, accounting for 0.15% of the country’s geographical area (as per ISFR 2021).
West Bengal, Gujarat, and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands hold the largest mangrove areas, with West Bengal (Sundarbans) alone covering over 42% of the total.
Why are mangroves vital for climate and coastal resilience in India?
Natural Coastal Shield: Mangroves act as buffers against cyclones, storm surges, and coastal erosion. Eg: During the 2004 tsunami, villages protected by mangroves in Tamil Nadu suffered less damage compared to those without them.
Climate Change Mitigation: They store “blue carbon” in biomass and deep soil, helping to absorb excess CO₂. Eg: India’s mangroves contribute significantly to carbon sequestration, aiding in climate targets under the Paris Agreement.
Biodiversity Hotspots: Provide breeding grounds for fish, crabs, birds, and other marine life. Eg: Thane Creek Flamingo Sanctuary in Mumbai supports over 180 bird species due to nearby mangroves.
Livelihood Support for Communities: Sustain traditional occupations like fishing, honey gathering, and crab farming. Eg: Sunderbans communities rely on mangroves for fishing and honey collection.
Disaster Risk Reduction: Reduce the impact of natural disasters by slowing floodwaters and stabilising shorelines. Eg: In Odisha, mangroves helped minimise damage during Cyclone Phailin (2013).
What threatens India’s mangroves?
Urbanisation and Industrial Expansion: Mangrove areas are cleared for ports, housing, and industrial zones. Eg: Mangrove loss in Mumbai due to Navi Mumbai airport construction.
Aquaculture and Agriculture Encroachment: Conversion of mangrove land into shrimp farms or paddy fields disrupts ecosystems. Eg: Andhra Pradesh lost mangroves to extensive aquaculture projects.
Pollution: Discharge of industrial effluents, plastic, and sewage harms mangrove health. Eg: Thane Creek, Mumbai, faces heavy pollution impacting biodiversity.
Climate Change and Sea Level Rise: Changes in salinity, temperature, and rising sea levels affect mangrove regeneration. Eg: Sundarbans face submergence and loss due to rising sea levels.
Overexploitation of Resources: Excessive collection of wood, honey, and fodder leads to degradation. Eg: In West Bengal, unsustainable practices by local communities reduce forest cover.
How has community involvement aided mangrove restoration in Tamil Nadu?
Collaborative Restoration Projects: Community members partnered with institutions like the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation and the Tamil Nadu Forest Department for restoring degraded mangroves. Eg: In Muthupettai’s Pattuvanachi estuary, locals helped implement a 115-hectare restoration plan.
Tidal Canal Digging for Hydrology Restoration: Villagers participated in digging 19 major canals to restore natural tidal flow, crucial for mangrove survival. Eg: This intervention successfully revived water movement in Muthupettai, enabling mangrove regrowth.
Seed Collection and Plantation: Locals actively collected and planted seeds of native mangrove species like Avicennia and Rhizophora. Eg: Over 4.3 lakh Avicennia seeds and 6,000 Rhizophora propagules were planted by community members.
Removal of Invasive Species: Community groups helped clear invasive weeds like Prosopis juliflora, which compete with mangroves for space and nutrients. Eg: In Kazhipattur near Buckingham Canal, Chennai, invasive plants were removed before mangrove restoration began.
Support for Green Missions and Monitoring: Local residents supported and maintained mangrove cover under the Green Tamil Nadu Mission, ensuring long-term success. Eg: Community participation helped double Tamil Nadu’s mangrove area from 4,500 ha to 9,000 ha (2021–2024).
What is the role of corporate partnerships in mangrove revival in Mumbai?
Financial and Technical Support: Amazon’s Right Now Climate Fund invested $1.2 million (₹10.3 crore) in a restoration project along Thane Creek, enabling large-scale ecological rehabilitation.
Pollution Control and Ecosystem Restoration: Partnered with Hasten Regeneration and Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation to install trash booms that intercept plastic waste, aiming to collect 150 tonnes over 3 years while planting 3.75 lakh mangrove saplings.
Community Empowerment and Livelihood Generation: Created paid employment opportunities for local women in planting and maintenance, linking ecological recovery with socio-economic upliftment.
Why is Gujarat leading in mangrove restoration?
Ambitious Scale under MISHTI Scheme: Under the Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats and Tangible Incomes (MISHTI), launched in 2023, Gujarat planted over 19,000 hectares of mangroves within two years—far exceeding the national five-year target of 54,000 hectares.
Strategic Coastal Coverage & Biodiversity Focus: Gujarat holds about 23.6% of India’s total mangrove cover, with major plantations in Kutch, Bhavnagar, Surat, and Dumas-Ubhrat. These areas support critical ecological balance, biodiversity, and local livelihoods.
Strong Governance, Planning & Local Institutional Support: Efficient coordination between the Gujarat Forest Department, state environment agencies, and local communities has ensured success. Structured coastal mapping, restoration planning, and promotion of ecotourism-linked livelihoods have further strengthened outcomes.
What are the steps taken by the Indian government?
Green India Mission & State Missions: Through the National Green India Mission and state-level initiatives like the Green Tamil Nadu Mission, the government supports afforestation, ecosystem restoration, and community-based conservation efforts.
Inclusion in Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Rules: Mangrove areas are designated as Ecologically Sensitive Zones (ESZ) under the CRZ Notification, restricting construction and promoting their protection through legal safeguards and regulatory oversight.
Way forward:
Strengthen Community-Based Conservation: Empower local communities through training, incentives, and formal roles in monitoring and maintaining mangroves to ensure sustainable, long-term protection.
Integrate Mangroves into Climate and Development Planning: Recognise mangroves as vital climate infrastructure by integrating them into coastal zone management, disaster resilience strategies, and carbon credit frameworks.
Recently, the custodial death of Ajith Kumar in Tamil Nadu has reignited concerns about police torture and custodial violence in India, drawing attention to the ongoing abuse of power, lack of accountability, and systemic failures in law enforcement.
Note:“Dirty Harry’s shadow” is the ethical grey zone that officers may enter when they justify unethical or illegal behavior (e.g., excessive force, illegal search, or planting evidence) on the grounds that it’s necessary to serve a greater good (like convicting a dangerous criminal).
What is the status of custodial torture in India?
Between 2010 and 2020, NHRC data reports 17,146 custodial deaths (judicial/police), averaging nearly five deaths per day.
From 2001 to 2020, only 26 police personnel were convicted out of 1,888 recorded custodial deaths, reflecting a severe lack of accountability in the system.
Why does custodial torture persist in India despite legal safeguards?
Weak Enforcement of Legal Safeguards: Supreme Court guidelines (e.g., D.K. Basu guidelines) are often ignored, especially by lower-level police.
The D.K. Basu guidelines are a set of procedural safeguards laid down by the Supreme Court of India in 1996 in the landmark case D.K. Basu vs. State of West Bengal to prevent custodial torture, deaths, and abuse of police power.
Key Guidelines (To be followed during arrest and detention):
Arrest memo must be prepared, signed by the arrestee and a witness, with time and date.
Inform a relative/friend: The person arrested must be allowed to inform someone about the arrest.
Right to legal counsel: The arrestee has the right to meet their lawyer during interrogation.
Medical examination: Arrestees must be medically examined every 48 hours by a government doctor.
Copy of arrest memo: Sent to the local magistrate for records.
Daily diary entry: Time, place of arrest, and custody details must be recorded in the police diary.
Police identification: Arresting officers must have name tags and their details must be recorded.
Notice board in police station: Display of rights of arrested persons.
Timely production before magistrate: Within 24 hours of arrest, as per Article 22 of the Constitution.
Lack of Accountability: Very few police personnel are punished, creating a culture of impunity. 3. Societal Indifference and Pressure: Public tolerance for “tough policing” and pressure to solve cases fast encourages use of force to extract confessions.
Legal Gaps That Enable Torture:
No Standalone Law: There’s no specific law criminalising custodial torture. The 2010 Prevention of Torture Bill was never passed.
Non-Ratification of UNCAT: India signed but hasn’t ratified the UN Convention Against Torture, so it lacks binding obligations to reform.
Poor Protection for Victims/Witnesses: Those who report torture often face threats, with little legal protection – delaying or discouraging justice. Eg: The Jayaraj-Bennicks case (2020)
Should India ratify the UN Convention Against Torture?
Enhances Legal Accountability and Human Rights Protections: Ratifying UNCAT would require India to enact a dedicated anti-torture law, ensuring clear definitions, accountability, and punishment for custodial abuse. Eg: In the Jayaraj and Bennicks case (2020), the absence of a strong torture law delayed justice and highlighted the need for international legal standards.
Strengthens India’s Global Human Rights Image: As a democracy and UN member, ratification would align India with global norms, reinforcing its commitment to human dignity and justice. India often faces criticism at UN Human Rights Council reviews for non-ratification, which weakens its diplomatic stance on rights issues.
What reforms are needed? (Way forward)
Enact a Dedicated Anti-Torture Law: Clearly define torture, prescribe strict punishment, and ensure victim compensation and rehabilitation.
Set Up Independent Oversight Bodies: Create state and district-level police complaints authorities for unbiased investigation.
Ensure Custodial Surveillance: Install CCTVs in all custody areas and mandate regular monitoring and audits.
Train Police on Human Rights: Conduct regular training programs focused on rights-based policing and legal safeguards.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2023] The Constitution of India is a living instrument with capabilities of enormous dynamism. It is a constitution made for a progressive society”. Illustrate with special reference to the expanding horizons of the right to life and personal liberty.
Linkage: The article explicitly links the Supreme Court’s reaffirmation of “dignity and bodily autonomy as fundamental rights” in the K.S. Puttaswamy case (2017) to the ongoing issue of rampant torture in custody. This question allows for a discussion on how judicial interpretations have broadened the scope of fundamental rights, which are directly challenged by the “Dirty Harry” policing methods that the source criticises.
Recently the arrest of two Catholic nuns in Chhattisgarh on charges of human trafficking and forced religious conversion has sparked widespread political and religious backlash.
Why are anti-conversion laws controversial in tribal regions?
Misuse Against Voluntary Conversions: These laws, intended to curb conversions through force or fraud, are often misused to harass tribal Christians and missionaries involved in voluntary and lawful religious activities. Eg: In Chhattisgarh, two Catholic nuns were arrested for alleged forced conversion, despite the tribal girls and their families confirming it was voluntary.
Targeting of Minority Rights: Anti-conversion laws disproportionately affect Christian and Muslim minorities, leading to surveillance, fear, and restricted religious freedom, especially among tribal converts. Eg: Several tribal states like Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, and Odisha have used these laws to criminalise conversions, even when done without coercion.
Threat of Delisting ST Converts: There is a growing debate on removing Scheduled Tribe status from tribals who convert to Christianity, threatening their constitutional safeguards and entitlements. Eg: In Chhattisgarh, such debates have intensified, questioning the identity and rights of Christian Adivasis.
What is the Sarna Religious Code?
The Sarna religious code is a demand by tribal (Adivasi) communities in India to recognize Sarnaism as a distinct religion in official government records, especially in the Census.
Key Features:
Nature Worship Tradition: Sarna followers worship nature — like sacred groves (called Sarnas), hills, rivers, and the Earth. They follow traditional Adivasi customs, not Hindu, Christian, or Muslim practices.
Cultural Assertion and Legal Recognition: Recognizing the Sarna code would safeguard tribal culture, language, and identity, and protect their constitutional and land rights from religious assimilation.
What constitutional rights to religious freedom are being undermined?
Right to Freedom of Religion (Article 25): Citizens have the right to freely profess, practice, and propagate any religion. This is undermined when voluntary conversions are falsely labelled as forced or illegal, especially among tribals and minorities.
Right to Personal Liberty (Article 21): The right to make autonomous choices—including choosing one’s religion—is a part of personal liberty. Anti-conversion laws infringe on this by criminalizing voluntary decisions, often without evidence of coercion.
Equality Before Law (Article 14): These laws are selectively enforced against Christians and Muslims, leading to discriminatory treatment. This violates the principle of equality and non-discrimination, a core part of India’s secular constitutional framework.
What are the actual conversions happened in India?
Mass Dalit Conversions to Buddhism (1956 and after): Led by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, over 5 lakh Dalits converted to Buddhism in 1956 to escape caste-based oppression and reclaim dignity. Eg: Ambedkar’s historic mass conversion in Nagpur triggered a broader movement of religious shift rooted in social reform.
Christian Conversions in Tribal Regions: In states like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha, many tribal communities have converted to Christianity, often due to access to education, healthcare, and social support from missionaries. Eg: The Kandhamal district in Odisha has seen a significant rise in Christian population over decades, leading to communal tensions.
‘Ghar Wapsi’ or Reconversion to Hinduism: Organised by Hindu groups like the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP), ‘Ghar Wapsi’ aims to reconvert people who earlier embraced other faiths back to Hinduism. Eg: In Uttar Pradesh (2014), VHP claimed hundreds of Muslims and Christians were brought back to Hinduism through Ghar Wapsi drives, raising ethical and legal concerns.
Do Conversions Impact Indian Society Negatively?
Social Polarisation and Communal Tensions: Conversions whether into or out of a religion often become flashpoints for communal conflict, especially when framed as threats to majority identity. This can disrupt social harmony and lead to violence, as seen in Kandhamal (Odisha, 2008) and other conflict-prone areas.
Political Exploitation and Fear-Mongering: Conversion is frequently politicised, used to mobilise vote banks or target minority communities, which undermines democratic values and diverts focus from genuine socio-economic development.
Distrust and Fragmentation in Local Communities: Conversions may sometimes lead to social alienation or loss of community ties, especially in tightly-knit rural or tribal areas, where religious identity is deeply linked with cultural belonging.
Way forward:
Strengthen Constitutional Safeguards: Ensure that anti-conversion laws align with Articles 25-28 of the Constitution by protecting voluntary religious choicewhile penalizing only coercive or fraudulent practices.
Promote Interfaith Dialogue and Tribal Autonomy: Encourage community-level engagement and interfaith dialogue, and recognize tribal cultural rights including support for demands like the Sarna religious code to prevent polarization and protect indigenous identities.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] Intercaste marriages between castes which have socio-economic parity have increased, to some extent, but this is less true of interreligious marriages. Discuss.
Linkage: The arrest of the nuns and the subsequent clarification by the girls’ kin that there was “no forceful conversion” directly touches upon the sensitive issue of interreligious interactions and alleged conversions, which anti-conversion laws are often used to criminalize, especially in the context of interfaith marriages.
The Ministry of Education, in collaboration with the Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) Division at Central Sanskrit University, has launched the Setubandha Scholarship Scheme.
About the Setubandha Scholarship Scheme:
Objective: Acts as a bridge between traditional Gurukul learning and modern research, enabling the mainstreaming of Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) into higher education.
Target Group: Students trained under Gurus or in Gurukul systems for a minimum of 5 years.
Focus: Encourages postgraduate and doctoral research across disciplines rooted in IKS.
Institutions Involved: Provides access to mentorship and research facilities at top institutions like Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs).
Key Features:
Financial Support:
Postgraduate Scholars: Up to ₹1 lakh.
PhD Candidates: Up to ₹2 lakh.
Monthly Scholarships: Starting from ₹40,000.
Eligibility:
Age limit: Below 32 years.
Minimum 5 years of Gurukul-based learning.
No formal degree required—classical knowledge proficiency is the key criterion.
Scope of Research:
Supports 18 disciplines rooted in IKS, including:
Vedic philosophy, Jyotisha, Ayurveda, Rasa Shastra
Vastu Shastra, Dandaniti (political science), Indian arts and education
Traditional law, linguistics, agriculture, and astronomy
Broader Impact:
Fosters integration of ancient wisdom with modern scientific inquiry.
Recognizes and rewards excellence in traditional systems of knowledge.
The Union Environment Ministry has notified the Environment Protection (Management of Contaminated Sites) Rules, 2025 under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
About the Environment Protection (Management of Contaminated Sites) Rules, 2025:
Nodal Agency: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC).
Legal Basis: Framed under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
Purpose: India’s first dedicated legal framework to identify, clean up, and monitor contaminated sites.
Goal: Prevent environmental degradation, enforce clean-up, and ensure polluter accountability.
Funding Pattern:
Himalayan & Northeast states: 90% Centre – 10% State
Other states: 60% Centre – 40% State
Union Territories: 100% Centre
Key Features:
Site Classification: Sites categorized as suspected, potentially contaminated, or confirmed, based on scientific evidence.
Exclusions: Sites involving radioactive waste, mining, marine oil spills, or municipal solid waste (regulated separately).
Transparency & Tracking: Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) to maintain a real-time online portal with public access.
Public Participation:
60-day window for stakeholder feedback post-listing.
Final site lists must be published in regional newspapers.
Polluter Pays Principle:
Identified polluters must bear full remediation cost and repay within 3 months.
Land use changes or ownership transfers restricted during/post clean-up.
Orphan Sites (No Known Polluter): Clean-up funded through:
Environment Relief Fund
Environmental violation penalties
Government budgetary support
Voluntary Remediation: Private entities with technical capacity may remediate sites with landowner consent.
Monitoring Committees: State and Central-level bodies to oversee implementation and submit annual compliance reports.
Back2Basics: Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
Enactment: In response to the Bhopal Gas Tragedy; derives authority from Article 253 of the Constitution.
Objective: To protect and improve the environment and prevent hazards to life and property.
Significance: Acts as India’s umbrella environmental legislation, coordinating with the Water Act (1974) and Air Act (1981).
Key Provisions:
Pollution standards via Environment (Protection) Rules.
Hazardous Waste Rules, 1989 – manage toxic waste.
Chemical Safety Rules – control handling of hazardous chemicals.
Cells Rules, 1989 – govern gene tech and genetically modified organisms.
Power: Empowers the Central Government to act directly for environmental protection.
[UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements:
The Environment Protection Act, 1986 empowers the Government of India to:
1. State the requirement of public participation in the process of environmental protection, and the procedure and manner in which it is sought.
2. Lay down the standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from various sources.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
