The World Health Organisation (WHO) has launched the “3 by 35” initiative, urging countries to raise taxes on tobacco, alcohol, and sugary drinks by at least 50% by 2035 to fight rising chronic diseases.
About the ‘3 by 35’ Initiative:
Launch and Objective: The ‘3 by 35’ initiative was launched by WHO in 2024 urging countries to raise real prices of tobacco, alcohol, and sugary drinks by at least 50% by 2035 through health taxes.
Public Health Goal: The primary aim is to reduce non-communicable diseases (NCDs) like cancer, heart disease, and diabetes, which currently cause over 75% of global deaths.
Impact Projection: According to WHO estimates, a 50% price increase in harmful products could prevent 50 million premature deaths over the next 50 years.
Revenue Mobilization Target: The initiative aims to help countries generate $1 trillion in public revenue over the next decade to strengthen national health systems and fund universal health coverage (UHC).
Global Technical Support: A global alliance of experts and institutions backs the initiative by offering policy advice, real-world case studies, and implementation support.
Key Features:
Focus on Health Taxes: Promotes the use of excise taxes to increase the prices of tobacco, alcohol, and sugary beverages, discouraging harmful consumption and improving population-level health.
Evidence-Based Tools: Provides technical guidance, economic models, and case studies to support country-specific reforms in taxation policy.
Alignment with UHC: Positions health taxes as sustainable revenue sources for public health financing, especially targeting low- and middle-income countries.
Equity-Oriented Design: Targets products disproportionately consumed by vulnerable groups, making the initiative also a tool for social equity and justice.
[UPSC 2013] Consider the following statements:
1. India ranks first in the world in fruit production. 2. India ranks second in the world in the export of tobacco. Which of these statements is/are correct?”
Options: (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2*
[UPSC 2024] What changes has the Union Government recently introduced in the domain of Centre-State relations? Suggest measures to be adopted to build the trust between the Centre and the States and for strengthening federalism.
Linkage: The articles discusses how India’s democratic backsliding occurred partly due to the exploitation of constitutional weaknesses and how “the deeper damage to political culture, to institutions, to the idea that constitutionalism alone can protect democracy remains” after the Emergency.
Mentor’s Comment: On U.S. Independence Day, reflections by Judge J. Michael Luttig and a look back at India’s 1975 Emergency give a strong warning about how democracy can be weakened from within. It compares how Indira Gandhi misused the Constitution in India to how leaders like Donald Trump show signs of authoritarianism in America. It highlights that freedom and rights can be lost not by war, but by twisting laws and failing institutions. The Emergency period still feels relevant today, as many democracies around the world face similar dangers. It’s a reminder that constant vigilance is the price of liberty.
Today’s editorial analyses the 1975 Emergency and its impact in India. This topic is important for GS Paper II (Indian Polity) in the UPSC mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
The same problems that caused the Emergency in India are now putting the U.S. at risk. The lesson is that tyranny grows when important institutions stop doing their job.
What Constitutional gaps enabled the 1975 Emergency’s misuse?
Vague Grounds for Proclaiming Emergency (Article 352): The term “internal disturbance” (before it was amended to “armed rebellion” by the 44th Amendment) was undefined, allowing the government to declare an Emergency without sufficient justification.
Lack of Judicial Safeguards: The judiciary, including the Supreme Court, failed to protect fundamental rights. In the ADM Jabalpur case (1976), the Court ruled that even the right to life could be suspended, revealing a serious weakness in judicial independence and constitutional checks.
Absence of Parliamentary Oversight Mechanisms: There was no mandatory review or time limit for an Emergency once proclaimed. Parliament was not empowered to effectively question or revoke the declaration, enabling prolonged executive overreach.
Preventive Detention Laws without Safeguards: Laws like the Maintenance of Internal Security Act (MISA) allowed for the detention of individuals without trial, and the suspension of habeas corpus, giving the executive near-total control over personal freedoms.
How did the Emergency weaken democratic institutions in India?
Suppressing the Free Press: The government imposed pre-censorship on newspapers like The Indian Express and The Statesman, curbing freedom of the press. Journalists were jailed, and dissenting voices silenced, eroding media independence.
Paralysing the Legislature and Bureaucracy: Parliament became a rubber stamp, passing ordinances and amendments without real debate. Civil servants and ministers followed orders unquestioningly, prioritising loyalty over legality, thereby hollowing out institutional integrity.
Why is India’s Emergency relevant to the current global democratic decline?
Authoritarianism through Legal Means: The 1975 Emergency showed how laws can be manipulated to suspend rights and suppress dissent without military coups. Today, similar tactics are used globally — leaders use legal loopholes and executive decrees to weaken democratic norms (e.g., Hungary’s rule-by-decree during the COVID-19 pandemic).
Erosion of Institutional Independence: During the Emergency, judiciary, media, and civil services failed to resist executive overreach. This institutional submission mirrors current trends in several democracies where checks and balances are compromised under pressure (e.g., judiciary weakening in Turkey and political pressure on U.S. law enforcement).
Cult of Personality and Centralised Power: Indira Gandhi’s consolidation of power and her son’s parallel command structure resemble modern populist leadershipsthat centralise authority, undermine opposition, and control narratives (e.g., executive overreach in Brazil, Philippines, or even Russia).
What ethical duties do institutions hold in resisting authoritarianism?
Upholding Constitutional Values: Institutions like the judiciary, legislature, and civil services must prioritise the Constitution over political loyalty, ensuring that democratic principles, civil liberties, and rule of law are never compromised.
Maintaining Institutional Independence: Institutions have a duty to remain independent and impartial, resisting pressure from the executive or ruling parties. This includes protecting dissent, enabling checks and balances, and avoiding complicity in authoritarian overreach.
Defending Public Trust and Accountability: Ethical responsibility requires institutions to serve the public interest, not individual leaders. They must ensure transparency, fairness, and accountability, especially during crises when democratic norms are most vulnerable.
How can citizens safeguard democracy from internal threats?
Active Civic Participation: Citizens must engage in democratic processes such as voting, peaceful protest, and public discourse to hold leaders accountable. Eg: Mass movements like India’s JP Movement in the 1970s or the U.S. Civil Rights Movement helped restore democratic accountability.
Demanding Transparency and Accountability: Citizens should question government actions, demand answers through RTI, media, and civil society platforms, and resist normalisation of unconstitutional acts. Eg: Public pressure during India’s anti-corruption movement (2011) led to the Lokpal Act.
Promoting Constitutional Literacy and Vigilance: A well-informed public is less likely to fall for authoritarian rhetoric. Citizens must educate themselves about constitutional rights and duties, enabling them to recognize and resist erosion of democratic norms.
Way forward:
Strengthen Institutional Independence: Ensure autonomy of key democratic institutions like the judiciary, election commission, and media through legal safeguards and transparent appointments to resist political influence.
Promote Constitutional Literacy and Civic Engagement: Launch nationwide awareness campaigns and integrate constitutional values into education to empower citizens to uphold democratic principles and resist authoritarianism.
UPSC rarely asks direct questions on solid waste. It prefers layered, value-added questions that test the aspirant’s understanding of ground realities, structural gaps, and long-term solutions, just like the 2018 question on impediments in solid waste disposal and toxic waste. This article is crafted to prepare students for exactly that. It blends data (such as India generating 9.3 million tonnes of plastic annually), policy gaps (like the overemphasis on recycling infrastructure under SBM 2.0), and global comparisons (like South Korea’s QR-based refill stations and Germany’s bottle-return systems) — all of which lend your answers sharpness and credibility. Most aspirants falter by focusing only on the visible parts — like knowing rules or citing Swachh Bharat — but miss why those rules don’t work in practice (e.g., lack of incentives for reuse, neglect of informal workers, or loopholes in plastic bans). That’s where this article becomes your edge. By diving into micro-themes like “Recycling: A Band-Aid or Breakthrough?” and “Missed Tech & Innovation,” it brings out what’s broken in the system and why good intent hasn’t led to impact. The most special thing about this article? It connects the dots between policies, people, practices, and even philosophies — from Mottainai in Japan to India’s missed opportunities in behavioural change campaigns. This mix of structure + soul is exactly what UPSC rewards.
This article prepares you for the type of layered questions UPSC asks on solid waste, such as the 2018 Mains question on disposal challenges. Instead of direct questions, UPSC tests your understanding of structural issues, ground realities, and long-term solutions.
Most aspirants mention schemes like Swachh Bharat but miss why they often fail. This article fills that gap by combining data, policy analysis, and global examples. It explains how India generates 9.3 million tonnes of plastic annually but lacks systems for reuse, support for informal workers, and enforcement of plastic bans. With sections like “Recycling: A Band-Aid or Breakthrough?”, it explores why good intent has not led to real change. By connecting policy, practice, and behavioural insights, the article helps you frame richer, more effective answers for the Mains.
PYQ ANCHORING
GS 3: What are the impediments in disposing the huge quantities of discarded solid waste which are continuously being generated? How do we remove safely the toxic wastes that have been accumulating in our habitable environment? [2018]
MICROTHEMES: Environmental Pollution and Mitigation
India is now the world’s largest contributor to plastic pollution, churning out 9.3 million tonnes of plastic waste every year. That’s not a typo — we’re leading the race to the bottom. And while we love flaunting bans on single-use plastics and launching glossy clean-up campaigns, the reality is far more garbage-strewn. Mountains of unrecycled plastic fester on city edges, toxic landfills grow by the day, and the so-called recycling industry? Mostly broken.We keep clinging to recycling like it’s a silver bullet — but is it really a solution, or just a distraction from deeper rot?Can recycling ever fix a system built on overconsumption and zero accountability? And if countries like Sweden and South Korea can build waste systems that actually work — what’s stopping India?
Recycling: A Band-Aid or a Breakthrough?
India’s waste management narrative has often spotlighted recycling as the hero of sustainability. While recycling is critical, an overdependence on it may be concealing deeper structural gaps in the waste value chain—particularly in waste reduction and reuse. The globally accepted waste hierarchy prioritizes Reduce → Reuse → Recycle, but in India, this order is often reversed in both policy and practice.
Key Gap
Insight
Example / Evidence
1. Overemphasis on Recycling Infrastructure
Heavy investments are made in MRFs and recycling industries, while initiatives on reduction and reuse get little budget or attention.
Budget allocations under SBM 2.0 focus more on processing facilities than behavior change.
2. Lack of Incentives to Reduce Packaging Waste
FMCG brands continue overpackaging due to weak enforcement of Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR).
Chip packets, shampoo sachets, and multilayered plastic are rarely reused or recycled.
3. Cultural Shift Ignored
Reduction and reuse require behavioral change, which is slower and harder to measure. Governments prefer the “visible” success of recycling metrics.
IEC campaigns focus on cleanliness, not minimalism or conscious consumption.
4. No Market for Reuse Models
India lacks organized reuse systems like bottle-return or repair hubs seen in other countries.
Germany’s deposit-return scheme for glass bottles contrasts India’s one-time-use trend.
5. Low Industry Participation in Reduction
Manufacturing continues to prioritize single-use products due to low cost and convenience.
Single-use plastics banned, yet loopholes allow continued production under different labels.
6. Recycling Itself is Inefficient
India recycles only about 30% of its plastic waste; much of the rest is downcycled or landfilled.
Informal workers sort and recover waste, but hazardous and multilayered plastic often escapes processing.
7. Missed Tech & Innovation in Reduction
Tech solutions for tracking consumption, optimizing supply chains, and designing reusable products are underutilized.
QR-based refill stations for cleaning liquids, common in South Korea, are absent in India.
Data Point: Current Waste Management Status in India
Indicator
Status
Total Waste Generation
~62 million tonnes/year
Collected Waste
70% collected; 12 million tonnes untreated
Urban Waste
1.5 lakh tonnes/day; 77% ends up in landfills
Plastic Pollution
9.3 million tonnes/year; 3.5 million tonnes leak into the environment
Legacy Waste
3,000+ dumpsites; only 19% remediated
Challenges in Waste Management
Challenge
Explanation
Inadequate Waste Processing Infrastructure
Lack of sufficient facilities for composting, recycling, and WtE processes. MSW Annual Report (2021–22): Out of 1,70,339 TPD generated, only 91,511 TPD processed.
Low Segregation at Source
Waste is not separated into wet, dry, and hazardous categories, leading to inefficient and hazardous processing.
Legacy Waste Dumps
Thousands of old dumpsites still exist. SBM 2.0: Out of 2,424 dumpsites >1,000 tonnes, only 470 have been remediated.
Neglect of Informal Sector
Over 1.5 million informal workers operate without training, legal protection, or recognition.
ULB Constraints
Urban Local Bodies lack technical expertise and funding. Only 5–25% of municipal budgets are allocated to waste management, focused mainly on collection.
Poor Policy Implementation
Though rules exist (e.g., SWM Rules, 2016), enforcement remains weak at the local level.
Public Awareness Gaps
People resist segregation, don’t compost, or recycle due to apathy and lack of incentives.
Legal Framework & Key Supreme Court Verdicts
Case
Legal Principle Established
M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (Ganga Pollution Case, 1988)
Introduced ‘Precautionary Principle’ & ‘Polluter Pays Principle’.
M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (Oleum Gas Leak Case, 1986)
Established ‘Absolute Liability’ — hazardous industries are liable regardless of negligence.
Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum v. Union of India (1996)
Reaffirmed both ‘Precautionary Principle’ & ‘Polluter Pays Principle’. ▶ Ordered green compensation fund and closure of non-compliant industries.
Globally Successful Waste Management Models
Country
Model/Approach
Key Features
Japan
Mottainai Philosophy
Emphasizes zero waste, value in every item—from food to clothes.
Sweden
Thermochemical incineration
Converts 50%+ of waste into electricity and heating.
South Korea
Pay-As-You-Throw
Introduced volume-based waste fees (VBWF) – higher the waste, higher the cost.
Germany
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)
Legal obligation for producers to take back and recycle packaging & e-waste.
Way Forward
Sort Waste at Source – Start at Home → Run strong awareness campaigns to make 3-bin segregation (wet, dry, hazardous) a daily habit in homes and communities.
Empower Waste Workers – Give Them Their Due → Bring informal waste pickers into official systems through inclusive models like SWaCH (Pune) and Hasiru Dala (Bengaluru). Give them dignity, safety, and fair pay.
Build Smarter Waste Infrastructure → Invest in more composting units, biomethanation plants, WtE plants, and MRFs (Material Recovery Facilities), especially in smaller towns. Follow clear CPCB guidelines for clustering and scaling.
Clean Up Old Dumps – No More Toxic Mountains → Use biomining and landfill capping to reclaim land from legacy waste. Use geo-tagging and digital dashboards (SBM 2.0) to track cleanup progress in real time.
Go Local – Zero Waste Starts in Your Backyard → Push for community composting, rooftop bio-methanation, and zero-waste models like in Indore and Amritsar. Waste management should begin right at the source.
#BACK2BASICS: Waste Management
Waste management includes the entire set of strategies and activities involved in:
Collection
Segregation
Transportation
Treatment
Recycling
Final disposal of waste produced by human activity.
It also involves efforts to:
Reduce waste generation, and
Reuse resources to ensure sustainability.
Waste Management Methods in India
Method
Description
Segregation at Source
Dividing waste into wet (biodegradable), dry (recyclable), and hazardous categories at the household or commercial level.
Material Recovery Facilities (MRFs)
Centers to sort, process, and recycle dry waste like plastic, paper, and metal. EPR Rules 2022 mandate MRFs for urban/rural bodies.
Composting
Conversion of biodegradable waste into manure using aerobic/anaerobic methods.
Scientific Landfills
Engineered landfills with liners and leachate treatment to replace open dumps.
Waste-to-Energy (WtE)
Incineration of waste to generate electricity.
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)
Brands must collect and recycle their own plastic packaging. ▶ Example: QR codes in Uttarakhand allow pilgrims to return bottles for a refund.
Bioremediation
Detoxification of old dump sites using bacteria or plants (for legacy waste).
Institutional Framework, Policies & Initiatives
Governing Bodies
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC)
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD)
State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs)
Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) – per 12th Schedule of the Constitution
Local Responsibility
As per the 74th Constitutional Amendment, waste management is one of the 18 functional areas of Municipal Corporations and Nagar Panchayats.
Constitutional & Legal Provisions
Article 51A (g): Fundamental duty of every citizen to protect and improve the natural environment.
Solid Waste Management (SWM) is a State Subject – responsibility lies with state governments.
Initiative
Details
Swachh Bharat Mission
Focuses on 100% door-to-door waste collection, complete segregation, and elimination of open dumping.
CPCB Action Plan (2016)
Categorizes cities by waste generation: • Large (>500 TPD) • Medium (100–500 TPD) • Small (<100 TPD) → For appropriate waste processing models.
Waste-to-Energy (WtE) & Bio-Methanation
Government supports WtE plants in large cities; functionality depends on waste segregation. Bio-methanation plants (e.g., Pune, Surat, Indore) convert wet waste into biogas. RDF (Refuse Derived Fuel) is used in cement and power plants.
Concepts to Remember
Term
Definition
Legacy Waste
Old, untreated waste at dumpsites causing pollution and land degradation.
Precautionary Principle
Environmental safety should be prioritized even without full scientific certainty.
Polluter Pays Principle
Polluters must bear the cost of damage prevention and clean-up.
GLOBAL CONVENTIONS
Convention / Agreement
Year
Scope / Focus
Relevance to Plastic Pollution
Basel Convention
1989 (Amended in 2019)
Transboundary movement of hazardous waste
2019 amendment includes plastic waste; requires prior informed consent before export/import
MARPOL Convention (Annex V)
1973/1978
Marine pollution from ships
Prohibits dumping of plastics and garbage into oceans by vessels
London Convention and Protocol
1972 / 1996 Protocol
Dumping of waste at sea
Restricts ocean disposal of plastics and persistent materials
Stockholm Convention
2001
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
Regulates toxic additives in plastics such as flame retardants and phthalates
UNEA Global Plastics Treaty
Ongoing (to be finalized by 2025)
Lifecycle approach to plastic pollution
Aims for a legally binding global treaty to address plastic production, consumption, and waste
G20 Osaka Blue Ocean Vision
2019
G20 initiative on marine plastic litter
Non-binding goal to reduce plastic pollution to zero by 2050
ASEAN Regional Action Plan
2021–2025
Marine debris in Southeast Asia
Regional plan to reduce plastic waste and promote circular economy
EU Plastics Strategy
2018
Circular economy and plastic use
Targets single-use plastics, promotes recycling and eco-design
Africa Clean Seas Campaign
2017
Marine litter in African countries
Supports national policies to combat marine plastic waste
MOCK DROP: Despite the existence of multiple global conventions aimed at managing plastic waste, plastic pollution continues to rise. Critically examine the efficacy of these conventions in addressing the plastic crisis. Suggest measures India can adopt to align with global best practices
On July 1, 2025, India marked eight years since the launch of the Goods and Services Tax (GST), but the occasion came with worrying signs for the economy. GST collections in June dropped to ₹1.85 lakh crore, the lowest in four months, and grew by just 6.2% year-on-year, the slowest growth in four years.
What do low GST collections reveal about the economy and system efficiency?
Sluggish Economic Activity: As GST is a consumption-based tax, low collections indicate reduced demand and consumption, reflecting a slowdown in economic growth.
Tax System Inefficiencies: The marginal growth in net collections (just 3.3% after refunds) points to loopholes in compliance, delayed refunds, and inefficiencies in enforcement and administration.
Weak Revenue Buoyancy: Revenue from domestic transactions rose only 4.6%, barely outpacing inflation, showing limited buoyancy in the tax system despite a stable tax base.
Why is the exclusion of fuel from GST debated?
Revenue Autonomy for States: Fuel taxes are a major independent revenue source for State governments. Including fuel under GST would shift this revenue to the GST pool, which is shared with the Centre, reducing the States’ financial autonomy.
Undermines ‘One Nation, One Tax’ Goal: Excluding key commodities like petrol and diesel creates fragmentation in the GST system, violating the principle of tax uniformity. Eg: A truck transporting goods across states pays different fuel taxes, adding to logistics costs and compliance burden.
Public Demand for Price Rationalisation: Including fuel under GST could reduce retail prices, as GST rates are lower than the combined excise + VAT. This is especially crucial during inflationary periods. Eg: If petrol (currently taxed ~100%) comes under the 28% GST slab, it could make fuel significantly cheaper for consumers.
What does “fewer GST slabs” mean?
It means merging some of these tax rates to move toward a simpler, more uniform GST system, such as: Possibly combining 12% and 18% into a single standard rate.
Current GST Structure: India has multiple GST slabs: 5%, 12%, 18%, 28%. Plus 0% (exempt) and special rates on certain goods/services.
How will fewer GST slabs improve tax efficiency?
Simplifies Compliance for Businesses: Fewer slabs reduce confusion, errors in tax calculation, classification, and filing, especially for small businesses. Eg: A product like packaged snacks currently attracts different GST rates depending on branding, merging slabs avoids such disputes.
Reduces Tax Evasion and Litigation: Multiple slabs create room for misclassification and disputes over applicable rates. Fewer rates lead to clearer guidelines and fewer loopholes. Eg:Footwear priced above ₹1,000 is taxed at 18%, while below ₹1,000 it’s 5%—leading to price manipulation.
Boosts Consumption and Revenue Predictability: A simplified rate structure improves consumer confidence, reduces cascading effects, and encourages spending, improving overall collections. Eg: Countries like Singapore (7%) or New Zealand (15%) with uniform GST systems report higher compliance and stable revenue.
What is the future of the GST Compensation Cess?
Originally meant to compensate States for GST losses for 5 years, extended till March 2026 to repay COVID-related borrowings. With its purpose served, it should be phased out rather than absorbed into GST rates.
Removing the cess will restore trust, reduce tax burden, and may stimulate urban consumption.
Why is fiscal responsibility crucial for GST reforms?
Ensuring fiscal sustainability: Sustainable subsidies and managing the compensation burden are essential for maintaining healthy public finances. Eg: During COVID-19, the Centre had to borrow extensively to compensate States, leading to a rise in debt levels.
Strengthening Centre–State trust: Responsible fiscal conduct by both the Centre and States builds trust, which is critical for cooperative federalism. The GST Council functions best when transparency is ensured and non-shareable cesses are minimized to allow a higher share of central taxes to States.
Enabling long-term tax reforms: Fiscal prudence enables the government to invest in long-term reforms such as rationalising GST slabs, strengthening IT infrastructure, and introducing compliance incentives. These efforts can improve tax buoyancy and offset short-term revenue losses.
How can the Centre–State balance be ensured? (Way forward)
Enhancing States’ Share in Central Taxes: The Centre should increase devolved funds under the Finance Commission framework to compensate for GST-linked revenue losses, especially if fuel and alcohol are brought under GST. Eg: Raising the tax devolution share beyond the current 41% can empower States financially.
Strengthening GST Council’s Cooperative Mechanism: Regular, consensus-based decision-making in the GST Council can improve Centre-State trust and ensure shared ownership of reforms. Eg: Joint committees for rate rationalisation or revenue monitoring can enhance transparency and equity.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2020] Explain the rationale behind the Goods and Services Tax (Compensation to States) Act of 2017. How has COVID-19 impacted the GST compensation fund and created new federal tensions?
Linkage: The article explicitly states that the GST Compensation Cess was extended until March 2026 to repay loans taken by the Centre to compensate States, specifically due to COVID-19 having disrupted revenues. The question directly delves into the compensation mechanism, its impact due to the pandemic, and the resulting “federal tensions”, which aligns perfectly with the source’s discussion on the Centre-State fiscal relationship regarding GST.
The Iran-Israel conflict has drawn global attention for its impact on oil prices, but a less visible and equally serious issue is emerging in fertiliser supply, which poses a significant risk to farming and food security in India.
What are the fertiliser security risks for India amid geopolitical conflicts?
Disruption of Import Routes: India relies heavily on fertiliser imports from Gulf countries like Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and Oman. These imports pass through the Strait of Hormuz, a key shipping route vulnerable to blockades during conflicts like the Iran-Israel standoff. Eg: A naval blockade in the Strait could delay shipments of urea and DAP, affecting timely supply during sowing seasons.
Volatile Global Prices: Geopolitical tensions raise the prices of natural gas (used to produce urea) and finished fertilisers. Eg: A conflict-induced surge in natural gas prices increases the cost of domestic urea production, straining India’s fertiliser subsidy bill.
Dependence on Conflict Zones: India imports 100% of MOP (Muriate of Potash), including from Belarus and Israel, both affected by global instability. Eg: Escalation in the Iran-Israel conflict can disrupt MOP imports, impacting crops like sugarcane and cotton that need potash-based fertilisers.
What lessons from the Russia-Ukraine crisis remain unaddressed?
Lack of Strategic Buffer Stocks: Despite 2022 supply disruptions, India still lacks a fertiliser buffer stock policy or minimum stocking norms for critical imports like DAP and MOP. Eg: During peak sowing seasons (like Kharif), 30–45 days of operational stock is inadequate to absorb external shocks.
Failure to Diversify Import Sources Meaningfully: While India talks of diversification, it continues to rely heavily on Gulf countries and politically unstable regions. Eg: After disruptions in nitrogen and potash from Russia and Belarus, the current dependence on Israel and Jordan for DAP remains high, risking repetition.
Reactive Rather than Proactive Policymaking: The policy response has focused more on short-term procurement than long-term resilience building through joint ventures, domestic innovation, or alternative fertilisers. Eg: No significant scaling of nano, bio or organic fertilisers occurred post-2022, leaving India stuck with high subsidy bills for synthetic inputs.
Why should fertilisers be part of India’s national security planning?
Critical for Food Security: Fertilisers are essential for sustaining agricultural output in an input-intensive farming system. Eg: Disruptions in urea or DAP supply during sowing seasons can directly impact crop yields and food availability.
Vulnerability to Geopolitical Shocks: Heavy reliance on imports from unstable regions exposes India to external risks.
Impact on Economic and Rural Stability: Fertiliser shortages or price hikes raise subsidy burdens and can lead to rural distress.
What are the steps taken by the Indian government?
Boosting Domestic Production: Reviving closed urea plants (e.g., Gorakhpur, Sindri, Talcher) to achieve 90% urea self-sufficiency by 2025. Focus on reducing import dependency for nitrogen-based fertilisers.
Diversifying Import Sources: Forming long-term agreements and joint ventures with countries like Morocco (for phosphates) and Canada (for potash) to ensure a stable supply. Exploring partnerships beyond the Middle East to reduce geopolitical risk.
Subsidy and Distribution Reforms: Implementing the Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) system for fertiliser subsidies to ensure transparency. Promoting alternative fertilisers like Nano Urea and encouraging balanced nutrient usage.
How can India build resilience in fertiliser supply chains? (Way forward)
Develop Strategic Fertiliser Reserves: Establish buffer stocks of key fertilisers like urea, DAP, and MOP, especially for critical sowing seasons (e.g., Kharif and Rabi) to cushion against global disruptions.
Expand and Diversify Import Partnerships: Forge long-term agreements and joint ventures with stable countries (e.g., Morocco, Canada, Jordan) and explore alternative shipping routes to reduce overdependence on the Middle East and de-risk supply chains.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2017] The question of India’s Energy Security constitutes the most important part of India’s economic progress. Analyze India’s energy policy cooperation with West Asian Countries.
Linkage: The article explicitly states that India relies heavily on Gulf countries for “natural gas — the key raw material used to produce” urea, a vital fertilizer. The ongoing conflict threatens “ammonia, urea, DAP, and liquified natural gas (LNG) — all vital for agriculture”. This PYQ precisely captures the energy dimension of India’s dependency on the Middle East, which is a critical underlying factor contributing to the fertilizer crisis.
Invoking the Agreement on Safeguards (AoS), India has notified the WTO of its plan to impose $724 million in retaliatory tariffs on the U.S. for breaching trade commitments through unilateral auto import duties.
What is the Agreement on Safeguards (AoS)?
Overview: It is a World Trade Organization (WTO) treaty that allows countries to apply temporary trade barriers—called safeguard measures—when a domestic industry is harmed by a surge in imports.
Purpose in Practice: The agreement maintains global trade discipline, offering legal protection tools but with checks to avoid abuse.
Conditions for Use: Safeguards can only be used when there is clear evidence of serious injury or threat to domestic producers due to increased imports.
Rules-Based System: The agreement ensures safeguard actions are transparent, time-bound, and non-discriminatory, preventing misuse for permanent protectionism.
Key Rules:
Article 12.3: Before acting, a country must notify and consult with other WTO members who may be affected by the safeguard.
Article 8: If consultation fails, the affected country can retaliate by suspending trade benefits equal to the loss it suffered.
Ban on Informal Restrictions: AoS strictly prohibits voluntary export restraints or informal quotas that evade WTO rules, ensuring fairness.
India’s Use of the AoS – The 2025 U.S. Tariff Case:
Trigger: The U.S. had imposed 25% tariffs on Indian-origin vehicles and parts in March 2025, which India claims are safeguard measures disguised as unilateral tariffs.
Violation of Rules: India alleges that the U.S. did not follow Article 12.3 (mandatory consultations) and thus violated both AoS and GATT 1994 rules.
Impact on Indian Exports: India estimates that $2.89 billion worth of exports have been affected and that the U.S. collected nearly $723.75 million in duties, matching India’s proposed retaliation.
India’s Justification: India asserts that this move is legal under WTO rules, not protectionist, and aims to defend its export interests while continuing trade talks with the U.S.
India’s Changing Role in WTO Safeguard Policy:
Early Strategy (1995–2010): India was initially cautious at the WTO, accepting tough terms under TRIPS, GATS, and AoA, and rarely used legal tools like retaliation, focusing more on diplomatic solutions.
Recent Assertiveness (Post-2010): India now actively invokes WTO rules like AoS to protect its interests and has won key disputes—such as:
The solar panel case against the U.S.
Legal challenges to EU’s export restrictions on food.
Global Leadership Role: India has taken the lead among developing countries to protect food security rights and push for fairer global trade terms, especially at Bali (2013) and Nairobi (2015) WTO summits.
Back2Basics:
TRIPS (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights)
Mode 2 – Consumption abroad (e.g., medical tourism)
Mode 3 – Commercial presence (e.g., foreign bank branch in India)
Mode 4 – Movement of natural persons (e.g., Indian professionals working overseas)
India strongly supports Mode 4 for its skilled labour force.
[UPSC 2015] The terms ‘Agreement on Agriculture’, ‘Agreement on the application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures’ and ‘Peace Clause’ appear in the news frequently in the context of the affairs of the:
Options: (a) Food and Agricultural Organization (b) United Nations Framework Conference on Climate Change (c) World Trade Organization* (d) United Nations Environment Programme
Recently, CJI B.R. Gavai affirmed that the collegium system will ensure merit, transparency, and inclusive representation, and will not be swayed by external pressures.
What is the Collegium System?
About: The Collegium System is the process by which judges are appointed and transferred in the Supreme Court and High Courts of India.
Origin: It was developed by the Supreme Court itself and is not mentioned in the Constitution.
Purpose: It aims to ensure judicial independence by minimizing the role of the executive in judicial appointments.
Basis for Appointments:
Supreme Court Judges: Under Article 124, the President appoints judges after consulting relevant judges from the Supreme Court and High Courts.
High Court Judges: Under Article 217, appointments are made by the President after consulting the Chief Justice of India, Governor of the State, and Chief Justice of the High Court concerned.
Structure of the Collegium:
Supreme Court Collegium: It consists of 5 judges — the Chief Justice of India (CJI) and the four senior-most judges of the Supreme Court.
High Court Collegium: It comprises the Chief Justice of the High Court and the two senior-most judges of that High Court.
Qualifications for SC Judges:
Citizenship: Must be an Indian citizen.
Judicial Experience: At least 5 years as a High Court judge or 10 years as an advocate in one or more High Courts.
Alternative Route: Can also be a distinguished jurist, in the President’s opinion.
Qualifications for HC Judges:
Experience: Must have held a judicial office for 10 years or practiced as an advocate for 10 years in a High Court.
Bar Enrollment: Must be enrolled with the Bar Council of India.
Evolution of the Collegium System:
First Judges Case (1981): The Supreme Court ruled that the executive had primacy in appointments, and the CJI’s opinion was not binding.
Second Judges Case (1993): The Court reinterpreted “consultation” to mean “concurrence”, giving primacy to the judiciary and formally creating the Collegium System.
Third Judges Case (1998): On Presidential Reference, the Collegium was expanded to five members — the CJI + 4 senior-most judges.
How does it Work?
Appointment of Chief Justice of India (CJI): The outgoing CJI recommends the next CJI, based on seniority. The Law Minister forwards it to the PM, who advises the President.
Appointment of Other SC Judges: The CJI initiates the proposal after consulting Collegium members and the senior-most judge from the concerned High Court.
Appointment of High Court Judges: Initiated by the High Court Chief Justice, approved by the High Court Collegium, and forwarded via the state government to the Union Law Ministry.
[UPSC 2012] What is the provision to safeguard the autonomy of the Supreme Court of India?
1. While appointing the Supreme Court Judges, the President of India has to consult the Chief Justice of India.
2. The Supreme Court Judges can be removed by the Chief Justice of India only.
3. The salaries of the Judges are charged on the Consolidated Fund of India to which the legislature does not have to vote.
4. All appointments of officers and staff of the Supreme Court of India are made by the Government only after consulting the Chief Justice of India.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 3 only * (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
The Union Minister for Petroleum has revealed that India is on the brink of a Guyana-like oil discovery in the Andaman Sea
Do you know?
Guyana, now a major oil-producing nation, has seen 47% average real GDP growth since 2022, driven by offshore oil.
About the Oil Exploration in Andaman Basin:
Location & Scale: It lies in the southeastern Bay of Bengal and covers about 2.25 lakh sq. km, making it one of India’s largest underexplored offshore sedimentary basins.
Geological Importance: It shares tectonic and structural similarities with nearby hydrocarbon-rich basins in North Sumatra (Indonesia) and Irrawaddy-Margui (Myanmar).
Historical Restrictions: The area was long considered a ‘No-Go’ zone due to environmental and strategic reasons, preventing oil exploration until recently.
Scientific Breakthrough: In 2020, Oil India Ltd launched the Deep Andaman Offshore Survey, which discovered mud volcanoes and Baratang formations — signs of hydrocarbon activity.
Data Entry into National Records: The survey findings were added to the National Data Repository (NDR) in 2023, making crucial geological data available to investors.
Rising Strategic Interest: The basin is now seen as vital for India’s energy security due to its deepwater potential and ability to cut down oil imports.
Recent Collaborations: Companies like ONGC partnered with TotalEnergies (France) in 2023 to explore deepwater blocks in the basin.
Policy Shift that Enabled Exploration:
Introduction of HELP: The Hydrocarbon Exploration and Licensing Policy (HELP) was introduced in 2016, replacing the older NELP system with a more industry-friendly framework.
Licensing Reform: HELP provides a single license for all hydrocarbons — oil, gas, shale, and coal bed methane — removing the need for separate permits.
Revenue Sharing System: Instead of auditing costs, the government now receives a fixed share of revenue, simplifying financial compliance and reducing disputes.
OALP and Investor Flexibility: The Open Acreage Licensing Policy (OALP) allows companies to bid for exploration blocks of their own choosing throughout the year, encouraging customized investment.
Use of Geological Data: The National Data Repository (NDR) helps companies make informed decisions using extensive geological and seismic information.
Market Freedom: Under HELP, companies have the freedom to price and market their oil and gas, which boosts competitiveness and attracts private players.
Royalty Incentives: A graded royalty system reduces rates for deepwater and ultra-deepwater blocks, offsetting high-risk exploration like in the Andaman.
[UPSC 2006] Which one of the following companies is associated with the exploration and commercial production of oil in Barmer Sanchore basin of Rajasthan?
Options: (a) Cairn Energy * (b) Unocal Corporation (c) Reliance Energy Ventures (d) ONGC
The Ministry of Communications has launched SAKSHAM-3000, a 25.6 Tbps indigenous switch-cum-router, to boost India’s data, cloud, and telecom infrastructure, marking a major leap in advanced networking technology.
What is SAKSHAM-3000?
Overview: It is a high-speed switch-cum-router developed by the Centre for Development of Telematics (C-DOT) to strengthen India’s digital infrastructure.
Indigenous Operating System: The device runs on CROS (C-DOT Router Operating System), enabling modular, scalable, and secure network operations.
Next-Gen Capability: It is designed for ultra-fast data transmission, offering up to 25.6 Terabits per second (Tbps) throughput.
Use Cases: It is suitable for data centres, 5G/6G networks, AI systems, and hyperscale computing clusters.
Cloud and Telecom Ready: It supports cloud-native deployments, legacy protocols, and future network architectures simultaneously.
Technical Highlights and Capabilities:
Massive Throughput: It supports 32 ports of 400G Ethernet and multiple speeds from 1G to 400G, delivering full 25.6 Tbps capacity.
Wire-Speed Performance: Data packets are processed at line rate, ensuring real-time transmission with no bottlenecks.
Time-Sensitive Applications: It includes support for Precision Time Protocol (PTP) and Synchronous Ethernet (Sync-E) to ensure accurate timing in industrial and telecom networks.
Full Protocol Support: It is compatible with Layer-2 switching, IP routing, and Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) for broad network configurations.
Traffic Management: Features like Weighted Round Robin (WRR) and Weighted Random Early Detection (WRED) improve traffic handling and reduce congestion.
Energy Efficiency: It uses a power-optimized architecture, balancing high performance with low power consumption for sustainable data centre use.
Flexible Licensing: Enterprises and telecom providers can customize licensing models for cost-effective scalability based on specific deployment needs.
[UPSC 2016] With reference to ‘LiFi’, recently in the news, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. It uses light as the medium for high-speed data transmission. 2. It is a wireless technology and is several times faster than ‘WiFi’.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2
PM Narendra Modi, while speaking in Trinidad and Tobago, paid tribute to the Girmitiyas—19th-century indentured Indian labourers who helped shape Indo-Caribbean culture.
About Girmitiyas:
Overview: The word “Girmitiya” comes from “agreement,” which was pronounced as “girmit” by Indian labourers who signed contracts to work abroad.
Origin of the Labourers: Most Girmitiyas were recruited from eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, especially from areas suffering poverty or famine.
Language and Community: These workers primarily spoke Bhojpuri, Awadhi, or Hindi and came from agricultural castes and communities.
Role of Recruitment Agents: Agents known as arkatis enticed labourers with promises of good wages while hiding the reality of harsh plantation conditions.
Scale and Scope of Migration: Between 1834 and 1920, over 1.2 million Indians were sent to British colonies like Mauritius, Fiji, Trinidad & Tobago, Guyana, South Africa, and Suriname.
Cultural Continuity Abroad: Despite minimal belongings, Girmitiyas preserved Indian languages, religious practices, and cultural expressions like Ramleela in the Caribbean.
Indentured Labour System: A New Form of Slavery:
Post-Abolition Labour Need: After slavery ended in 1834, the British created the Indian Indentured Labour System to meet the demand for plantation workers.
Contract Terms and Reality: Although the agreement lasted five years, labourers were often deceived, worked in poor conditions, and could not change employers.
Criminalisation of Movement: If a labourer was found outside the plantation without documentation, they could be arrested for vagrancy.
Punitive Wage Deductions: Tactics like the “double-cut” system—cutting two days’ pay for one day’s absence—made the system exploitative.
Wage Withholding: Employers often withheld wages to delay repatriation and trap labourers in economic dependence.
Gender Exploitation: Women were underrepresented, often brought for demographic balance, and suffered wage discrimination and sexual abuse, as documented by scholars like Kamala Kempadoo.
Critique by Historians: While colonial rulers called it a “Great Experiment,” historian Hugh Tinker famously termed it “a new system of slavery” in his 1974 book.
Gandhiji’s Campaign Against Indenture:
Early Opposition: Mahatma Gandhi opposed the system after witnessing its abuse during his legal work in South Africa.
Malaviya’s Blocked Attempt: In 1917, Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya tried to introduce a bill for abolition but was denied by the British colonial government.
Protest Strategy: Gandhi launched an all-India movement, using the press, public meetings, and moral advocacy to gather support.
Engagement with British: Gandhi met with Viceroy Lord Chelmsford and united national leaders in opposition to the practice.
Finally, Abolition: The mounting public pressure led to the official abolition of indentured labour on July 31, 1917.
Moral Significance: Gandhi later wrote in My Experiments with Truth that the victory represented India’s moral and spiritual awakening under nonviolent protest.
[UPSC 2019] With reference to the British colonial rule in India, consider the following statements:
1. Mahatma Gandhi was instrumental in the abolition of the system of ‘indentured labour’.
2. In Lord Chelmsford’s ‘War Conference’, Mahatma Gandhi did not support the resolution on recruiting Indians for World War.
3. Consequent to the breaking of the Salt Law by the Indian people, the INC was declared illegal by the colonial rulers.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only* (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
