[UPSC 2021] “There arose a serious challenge to the Democratic State System between the two World Wars.” Evaluate the statement.
Linkage: The period “between the two World Wars”, providing a broader historical context related to World War II which is the focus of Article. It prompts discussion on the challenges to democratic systems during this era.
Mentor’s Comment: Eighty years ago, on May 8, 1945, the Second World War officially ended in Europe when Nazi Germany surrendered to the Allied forces in Reims and Berlin. This day is celebrated as Victory in Europe (VE) Day, but in India, it often goes unnoticed, as the years of the war (1939-1945) are mainly remembered as the final phase of the struggle for independence. It is important to remember that Indians never ignored their duties to the world, whether in war or peace, as shown by the lives of two lesser-known Indians.
Today’s editorial examines the contributions of lesser-known Indian heroes like Kolachala Sitaramaiah and Idris Hasan Latif during World War II. This content will be useful for GS Paper I (World History) and GS Paper II (International Relations).
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
On May 9th, Victory in Europe Day is also a time to honor the brilliance of scientists like Kolachala Sitaramaiah and the courage of soldiers like Idris Hasan Latif during World War II.
Who was Kolachala Sitaramaiah?
Kolachala Sitaramaiah (July 15, 1899 – September 29, 1977) was a renowned chemist and is often referred to as the “Father of Chemotology,” the field dedicated to the study of lubricants and combustible materials in technology.
Born in Uyyuru, Andhra Pradesh, he pursued advanced studies abroad, where he made substantial contributions to the understanding of lubricants, particularly their role in machinery and the development of motor oils.
What contributions did he make during the Second World War?
Fuel Innovation for Soviet Tanks: He developed kerosene-based fuels and specialized lubricants that significantly enhanced the performance and maneuverability of Soviet tanks in sub-zero battlefield conditions. Eg: These innovations were critical during the Battle of Kursk (1943), where Soviet T-34 tanks outperformed Nazi Panzer and Tiger tanks.
Scientific Expertise Redirected to War Effort: Although he volunteered for frontline combat, Soviet authorities recognized his intellectual value and redirected him to research, stating his brain was a weapon, not a target. Eg: His work helped overcome early mechanical failures in Soviet tanks, crucial to halting the Nazi ground offensive.
Foundation for Future Scientific Fields: His wartime research laid the groundwork for chemmotology (tribochemistry) — the study of chemical changes from mechanical energy — and later contributed to plasma research important for nuclear fusion. Eg: His observations of incendiary weapons inspired deeper scientific inquiry into the fourth state of matter — plasma.
What were the challenges faced by Indian pilots like Idris Latif during their missions in the Second World War?
Inferior Aircraft and Equipment: Indian pilots were initially assigned outdated biplanes, putting them at a disadvantage in combat situations. Eg: Idris Latif flew patrols along the North West Frontier in old aircraft while British pilots used advanced models.
Dangerous Combat Environments: They flew missions in extremely hostile conditions, including thick jungles, poor visibility, and constant threat of enemy fire. Eg: In Burma, Idris flew the Hawker Hurricane against Japanese Zero fighters, often from muddy, short landing strips.
Health Hazards and Illness: Pilots endured unhygienic, disease-prone environments, which led to severe illnesses. Eg: Idris Latif fell gravely ill in the humid, mosquito-infested jungles of Burma but refused to abandon his squadron.
Lack of Recognition and Discrimination: Despite their service, Indian pilots often faced racial bias and were under-acknowledged by the colonial British authorities. Eg: Idris and others had to prove themselves repeatedly before being entrusted with frontline roles in Europe.
Emotional and Moral Dilemmas: Indian soldiers and pilots had to reconcile serving a colonial power while also yearning for India’s independence. Eg: Despite these conflicts, Idris remained committed to fighting fascism and later chose to stay in independent India post-Partition.
When did Idris Hasan Latif become the Chief of the Indian Air Force?
Appointment as Air Chief Marshal: Idris Hasan Latif became the 10th Chief of the Indian Air Force in 1978, marking a significant moment in IAF history. He was the first Muslim to hold the top position in the Indian Air Force.
Recognized for Wartime Service and Leadership: His distinguished service during the Second World War and later roles earned him this high command. His performance in combat and leadership roles post-independence showcased his capabilities.
How did he contribute to strengthening India-France defence relations?
Role as India’s Ambassador to France (1985–1988): After retiring as Air Chief Marshal, he was appointed Ambassador to France, a key position for defence diplomacy. Eg: His presence in Paris helped facilitate high-level strategic discussions on defence cooperation.
Leveraging Wartime Bonds: His personal connection to World War II and Normandy fostered shared respect and trust with French counterparts. Eg: He visited Normandy during his tenure, recalling his war contributions, which resonated deeply with French officials.
Military-to-Military Cooperation: He actively promoted exchanges between Indian and French armed forces and encouraged joint training initiatives.
Laying Groundwork for Future Defence Deals: His tenure helped build the foundation of trust that later enabled critical defence procurements. Eg: The Rafale fighter jet deal, though signed much later, benefited from the diplomatic groundwork laid during his ambassadorship.
Promoting Indigenous Capability through Collaboration: He supported technology transfers and joint development possibilities with France. Eg: His diplomatic efforts aligned with India’s interest in acquiring not just equipment but also technical know-how.
What is the evolution of the Indian Air Force (IAF)?
Formation and Early Years (1932–1947): The IAF was established in 1932 as an auxiliary force under British rule, participating in World War II with limited autonomy. Eg: Indian pilots flew biplanes in the Burma campaign during WWII.
Post-Independence Expansion (1947–1960s): After 1947, the IAF was reorganized as an independent force, expanding its fleet and training infrastructure. Eg: IAF played a crucial role in the 1947–48 Kashmir conflict using Dakotas to airlift troops.
Modernisation after Wars (1970s–1990s): Following wars with Pakistan and China, India focused on acquiring advanced aircraft and building indigenous capability. Eg: Introduction of MiG-21s, Miraj 2000 and establishment of HAL’s fighter production line.
Technology Integration and Strategic Reach (2000s): The IAF integrated AWACS, aerial refuellers, precision-guided munitions, and enhanced air defence systems. Eg: Induction of Sukhoi Su-30 MKI significantly improved long-range strike capability.
Next-Gen Air Power and Global Partnerships (2010s–Present): IAF has adopted network-centric warfare, multirole fighters, and AI-based systems, while deepening global defence ties. Eg: Procurement of Rafale jets from France and participation in multilateral exercises like Red Flag and Garuda.
What is the role of France in the Indian Air Force?
Strategic Defence Partner Since Early Years: France has been a consistent defence partner for India, supplying key aircraft and technology since the 1950s. Eg: France provided Ouragan (Toofani) jets in the 1950s, among IAF’s first jet fighters.
Supplier of Multirole Combat Aircraft: French aircraft have strengthened IAF’s strike capabilities through advanced multirole platforms. Eg: The Dassault Mirage 2000, inducted in 1985, played a decisive role in the Kargil War (1999).
Rafale Fighter Jet Deal: The acquisition of 36 Rafale jets enhanced India’s air dominance with advanced avionics, weaponry, and capabilities. Eg: Rafale jets were inducted starting in 2020 under a government-to-government deal with France.
Technology Transfer and Maintenance Support: France has supported India through tech transfer, joint production, and robust maintenance infrastructure. Eg: Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) maintained and upgraded Mirage 2000s with French collaboration.
Joint Exercises and Defence Diplomacy: India and France regularly conduct joint air exercises that enhance IAF’s tactical exposure and interoperability. Eg: The Garuda series of exercises improve coordination between French and Indian air forces.
Way forward:
Deepen Strategic Collaboration in Emerging Technologies: India and France should jointly invest in cutting-edge aerospace technologies such as AI-based combat systems, stealth UAVs, and hypersonic platforms to future-proof IAF capabilities.
Expand Joint Training and Indo-French Defence Industrial Base: Encourage co-development and co-production of next-generation aircraft and defence systems under Make in India, while scaling up joint military exercises like Garuda for enhanced operational synergy.
India and the United Kingdom have signed a landmark Free Trade Agreement (FTA), under which 99% of Indian exports to the U.K. will have no import duties, Prime Minister Narendra Modi and U.K. Prime Minister Keir Starmer announced on Tuesday.
What are the key benefits for India under the Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with the United Kingdom?
Zero-Duty Access for 99% of Indian Exports: This significantly enhances India’s export competitiveness in the U.K. market. Eg: Indian gems and jewellery, apparel, and engineering goods will enter the U.K. without customs duties, making them more attractive to British buyers.
Social Security Relief for Indian Workers in the U.K: Indian professionals and their employers will be exempt from social security contributions for up to 3 years. Eg: Indian IT professionals on temporary assignments in the U.K. will take home higher net salaries, encouraging Indian firms to send more workers abroad.
Boost to Services Trade and Investment Flows: The FTA facilitates easier movement of professionals and investors, promoting service sector growth and foreign direct investment (FDI). Eg: Indian consultancy firms or startups may find it easier to operate or invest in the U.K., supporting India’s goal of becoming a services export hub.
Who are the major Indian stakeholders expressing optimism about the FTA with the U.K., and why?
Engineering Goods Sector: Expects a significant boost in exports due to reduced or zero tariffs. Eg: The Engineering Export Promotion Council (EEPC) projects engineering exports to the U.K. to nearly double to $7.55 billion by 2029-30.
Apparel and Textile Industry: Gains price competitiveness in the U.K. market through zero-duty access. Eg: Indian garments become more competitive against Bangladeshi or Vietnamese exports, enhancing market share in Europe.
Gems and Jewellery Sector: Welcomes duty-free access for high-value products, boosting profitability. Eg: Indian jewellers can export gold and diamond jewellery to the U.K. with lower cost structures.
Information Technology (IT) and Professional Services: Benefits from easier mobility and recognition of qualifications for professionals. Eg: Indian IT firms can deploy professionals to the U.K. more efficiently, with less visa friction.
Indian Employers of Workers in the U.K: Gain from exemption from social security contributions for Indian workers temporarily in the U.K. Eg: Firms hiring Indian talent in the U.K. will save on mandatory contributions for 3 years, reducing costs and encouraging cross-border placements.
Why are Indian farmer organisations opposing the India-U.K. FTA?
Threat from Imported Agricultural Products: Reduced tariffs on U.K. agri-exports like lamb, salmon, and dairy products may hurt Indian farmers. Eg: Cheaper U.K. lamb and salmon could enter the Indian market, undercutting local producers who already operate on thin margins.
Concerns Over Low-Income, Low-Margin Conditions: Indian farmers fear intensified competition could worsen their already precarious economic situation. Eg: Many Indian farmers rely on traditional and small-scale farming, which cannot compete with heavily subsidised U.K. agriculture.
Lack of Protective Mechanisms: The FTA lacks clear safeguards to protect Indian farmers from market shocks due to sudden import surges. Eg: No countervailing duties or quotas have been announced to cushion farmers from a flood of imported agri-goods.
How could the India-U.K. FTA influence future trade agreements with the European Union and the United States?
Establishing a Negotiation Template: The India-U.K. FTA may serve as a reference framework for structuring future trade deals. Eg: If India agrees to liberalise tariffs on 85% of imports from the U.K., similar expectations may arise in talks with the EU and U.S..
Precedent for Sensitive Sector Concessions: Concessions on agricultural and alcohol imports set a precedent for market access in sensitive sectors. Eg: The cut in whiskey and gin tariffs for the U.K. may lead to similar demands from U.S. bourbon producers or EU wine exporters.
Pressure on Domestic Manufacturing and Policy: As India lowers duties and opens its markets, pressure may grow on its industrial and trade policy in upcoming FTAs. Eg: With less than 2% share in global exports, India’s manufacturing sector could be exposed if future FTAs follow the U.K. model without strong support policies.
Way forward:
Safeguard Vulnerable Sectors: Introduce protective clauses such as trigger safeguards, quotas, or phased liberalisation to shield Indian farmers and MSMEs from import surges. Eg: Gradual tariff cuts with review mechanisms for sensitive agri-products.
Strengthen Domestic Competitiveness: Enhance manufacturing capacity, R&D incentives, and export infrastructure to fully capitalise on new market access. Eg: Support engineering and textile sectors with technology upgradation and logistics hubs.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] The West is fostering India as an alternative to reduce dependence on China’s supply chain and as a strategic ally to counter China’s political and economic dominance.’ Explain this statement with examples.
Linkage: The India-UK FTA, and its potential use as a template for agreements with the EU and the US mentioned in article, can be viewed within the broader context of strengthening India’s economic and strategic ties with Western countries. This PYQ explores the reasons behind such partnerships, which provides a geopolitical backdrop to India’s trade negotiations with the UK and other Western nations.
Tensions between the two countries increased as Pakistan launched missiles and drones early Thursday to target 15 Indian military sites. In response, India hit air defence radars in Pakistan, neutralizing one in Lahore.
What are the three main operations that constitute an effective air defence system?
Detection: The first step involves identifying incoming threats like aircraft, drones, or missiles using radars or satellites. Eg: India’s Rohini Radar can detect multiple aerial targets and is part of the Akash Air Defence System.
Tracking: Once a threat is detected, it must be tracked continuously using radar, infrared, or laser-based sensors to determine its speed, altitude, and trajectory. Eg: The S-400 Triumf uses advanced tracking radars to simultaneously monitor and engage multiple targets.
Interception: After detection and tracking, the threat is neutralized using fighter aircraft, surface-to-air missiles, or anti-aircraft artillery. Eg: India’s Akash missile system intercepts enemy aircraft or missiles at medium ranges.
Why is the suppression of enemy air defence systems (SEAD) crucial for establishing air superiority?
Enables Safe Aerial Operations: Neutralising enemy air defences allows friendly aircraft to operate freely without the constant threat of being shot down. Eg: During the 1991 Gulf War, the U.S. first targeted Iraqi SAM sites to ensure air superiority.
Supports Ground Forces: Air superiority ensures effective air cover for ground troops, enabling safer movement, airstrikes, and supply drops. Eg: NATO SEAD missions in Kosovo helped protect allied ground forces from Serbian air defences.
Disrupts Enemy Command and Control: Destroying radar and communication nodes weakens the enemy’s ability to coordinate defences. Eg: Israeli SEAD missions against Syrian defences in 1982 crippled Syria’s radar and SAM systems early in the conflict.
Which types of weapons are commonly used by nations to intercept and neutralise aerial threats?
Fighter Aircraft (Interceptors): Fast and agile aircraft used to engage enemy fighters and bombers in air-to-air combat. Eg: India’s Dassault Rafale jets can intercept and neutralise enemy aircraft using beyond-visual-range missiles.
Surface-to-Air Missiles (SAMs): Ground- or ship-based missiles that target aircraft, helicopters, or incoming missiles. Eg: The S-400 system can engage threats up to 400 km away with high precision.
Anti-Aircraft Artillery (AAA): High-rate-of-fire guns used as a last line of defence, particularly against low-flying targets.Eg: The L70 Bofors gun is used by India for low-altitude air defence.
How do electronic warfare (EW) systems contribute to air defence without directly engaging enemy aircraft or missiles?
Radar Jamming: EW systems emit signals that interfere with enemy radar, making it difficult to detect or lock on to targets. Eg: The U.S. Navy’s EA-18G Growler jams enemy radar to protect allied aircraft.
Deception (Decoys): They send false signals to mislead enemy sensors, creating phantom targets or hiding real ones. Eg:DRDO’s “Samudrika” decoy system confuses enemy missile guidance.
Communication Disruption: EW tools disrupt enemy communication networks, limiting their coordination and response. Eg: Tactical jammers can cut off enemy ground-to-air communications during attacks.
Disabling Precision Weapons: EW can block or misguide the guidance systems of smart bombs and missiles. Eg: GPS jammers can prevent guided missiles from striking their intended targets.
Protection of Own Assets: EW defends friendly aircraft and installations by masking their electromagnetic signature. Eg:Su-30MKI fighters are equipped with EW suites to evade missile lock-ons.
Where can surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) be launched from?
Land-Based Platforms: SAMs are commonly deployed on fixed launchers or mobile vehicles for ground defence. Eg: India’s Akash missile system is mounted on trucks for mobility and rapid deployment.
Naval Warships: SAMs are launched from warships to protect against aerial and missile threats at sea. Eg: The Barak-8 missile is deployed on Indian Navy destroyers like INS Kolkata.
Sub-surface or Strategic Facilities: Some strategic SAM systems are integrated into hardened, underground bunkers or launch silos for protection. Eg: S-400 systems are often placed in secure, semi-permanent launch sites for long-range interception.
What are the different classes of SAMs used by India?
Long-Range SAMs: These systems are designed to engage high-altitude and long-range targets, including ballistic missiles and aircraft. Eg: The S-400 Triumf system, which has a range of up to 400 km, is a long-range SAM used by India to intercept aircraft and missiles.
Medium-Range SAMs: These systems are mobile and effective in engaging threats at intermediate ranges, typically between 50-100 km. Eg: The Akash missile system, developed by DRDO, is a medium-range SAM designed to protect tactical areas.
Short-Range SAMs (MANPADS): These are portable, man-carried systems used to defend against low-flying targets such as helicopters or drones. Eg: The Igla MANPAD, which is used by Indian forces for short-range air defence, can target low-flying aircraft and drones.
Conclusion: India’s air defence system integrates advanced radar, tracking, and interception capabilities through various SAMs, including long, medium, and short-range systems, ensuring comprehensive protection against aerial threats across diverse platforms.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2021] How is S-400 air defence missile system different from any other system presently available in the world?
Linkage: Air defence systems are vital in modern warfare for controlling the skies and protecting against enemy air strikes, including missiles. Understanding how air defence systems generally work (detection, tracking, interception methods) is essential context for discussing the features and differences of a specific system like the S-400 missile system mentioned in the question.
The India Meteorological Department (IMD) has warned of another year of extreme heat and above-normal heatwaves. This comes as Delhi recorded its hottest February in 74 years and Mumbai faced two heatwaves even before mid-March.
Heatwaves in India are becoming more severe and frequent, posing serious health risks. IMD predicts a rise in maximum temperatures and more heatwaves in eastern and southern India in the coming days. India must stay prepared to handle these recurring heatwaves.
About Heatwaves
Heatwaves- Heat waves are prolonged periods of excessively hot weather that can cause adverse impacts on human health, the environment, and the economy.
Definition of Heatwave- In India IMD defines heatwave based on the following criteria.
Physiography of regions
Plain– The maximum temperature recorded at a station is 40 degrees Celsius or more.
Coast- The maximum temperature recorded at a station is 37 degrees Celsius or more.
Hills- The maximum temperature recorded at a station is 30 degrees Celsius or more.
Based on Departure from Normal Temperature
Heat Wave- Departure from normal is 4.5°C to 6.4°C
Severe Heat Wave- Departure from normal is >6.4°C
Based on Actual Maximum Temperature
Heat Wave- When actual maximum temperature ≥ 45°C
Severe Heat Wave- When actual maximum temperature ≥47°C
(*Heat Wave is declared if above criteria are met in at least 2 stations in a Meteorological subdivision for at least two consecutive days.)
Status of Heatwaves in India
India has been affected by the Heatwaves since a long time. However, during the last few decades, due to increased instances of climate change, the impact of heat waves has also enhanced quite significantly.
States like Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh have been affected the most by the Heatwaves.
According to IMD, between 1981 and 1990 there were 413 heatwave days in India. However, the heatwave days have increased to 600 days between 2011 and 2020.
The number of deaths from heat-related causes increased from 5,457 between 1981 and 1990 to 11,555 between 2011 and 2020.
Causes of heatwaves in India
Heatwaves in India are driven by a mix of natural and human-induced factors. Let’s break them down in simple terms:
Natural Causes:
Trapped Hot Air – Sometimes, a high-pressure system stalls over a region, acting like a lid that traps hot air near the surface. With no airflow to disperse the heat, the temperature keeps rising. (Example: The 2015 heatwave in Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, which killed over 2,000 people, was worsened by a stalled high-pressure system.)
El Niño & Climate Variability – Events like El Niño disrupt weather patterns, making some areas drier and hotter than usual. (Example: In 2019, an El Niño event led to higher-than-normal temperatures across India, worsening heatwaves.)
Drought & Dry Land – When there’s little rain, the soil loses moisture, making it easier for the land to heat up. Dry land absorbs and retains heat more than moist soil. (Example: Rajasthan and Gujarat often face severe heatwaves due to prolonged dry spells.)
Hot Winds & Shifting Patterns – Winds can carry hot air from one place to another, worsening heat conditions in areas that aren’t usually this hot. (Example: In North India, hot ‘Loo’ winds from the Thar Desert increase summer temperatures dramatically.)
Geography Matters – Some areas are naturally prone to heatwaves due to their location. Landlocked valleys and cities surrounded by mountains trap heat, making the temperatures rise even more. (Example: Delhi’s location between the Thar Desert and the Himalayas makes it prone to extreme heat.)
Human-Induced Causes:
Climate Change & Global Warming – Human activities like burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial pollution have increased global temperatures, making heatwaves more frequent and severe. (Example: In the last century, India’s average temperature has risen by nearly 0.7°C, making summers hotter.)
Urban Heat Island Effect – Cities filled with concrete buildings, asphalt roads, and fewer trees absorb and retain heat, making them much hotter than surrounding rural areas. (Example: Mumbai and Delhi often experience temperatures 3-5°C higher than nearby villages due to the urban heat island effect.)
Deforestation & Loss of Green Cover – Trees and forests naturally cool the environment by providing shade and releasing moisture into the air. Large-scale deforestation for agriculture, urban expansion, and infrastructure projects has reduced this cooling effect, making temperatures rise. Example: The loss of forests in Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand for mining has led to rising local temperatures and more frequent heatwaves.
Air Pollution & Heat-Trapping Gases – Industrial emissions, vehicle exhaust, and burning crop residues release greenhouse gases and pollutants that trap heat in the atmosphere, worsening global warming. Example: The thick smog over Delhi in summer doesn’t just cause breathing issues—it also contributes to trapping heat, making heatwaves last longer.
Overuse of Air Conditioners & Cooling Systems – Ironically, while ACs cool indoor spaces, they release heat into the outside environment, increasing temperatures in cities. The more people use cooling systems, the hotter it gets outside. Example: Cities like Hyderabad and Bengaluru, once known for their moderate climate, now experience hotter summers due to increased AC usage and rapid urbanization.
In short, while natural weather patterns do play a role, human activities have made heatwaves worse and more common. Addressing climate change and improving urban planning are key to reducing their impact.
Impact of heatwaves in India
Danger to Human Health – When temperatures rise too fast, our bodies struggle to cool down, leading to heat cramps, exhaustion, heatstroke, and even fatal conditions like hyperthermia. The elderly, children, and outdoor workers are the most vulnerable. Example: In 2023, India recorded over 200 deaths due to heatstroke, especially in states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Strain on Electricity & Power Supply – As people crank up their air conditioners and fans, electricity demand surges, often pushing power grids to the brink of collapse, causing blackouts. Example: During Delhi’s extreme heatwaves, power cuts leave people struggling without cooling, worsening the crisis.
Economic Losses & Reduced Productivity – Heatwaves slow down work, especially in outdoor jobs like farming, construction, and factory work. Workers lose energy faster, and businesses see a drop in efficiency. Example: A study by the International Labour Organization (ILO) found that at 34°C, workers lose up to 50% of their work capacity, leading to massive economic losses.
Water Shortages & Conflicts – Extreme heat causes rivers, lakes, and reservoirs to dry up, worsening India’s already severe water crisis. This often leads to disputes between states over water-sharing. Example: The Cauvery Water Dispute between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu intensifies during heatwaves due to reduced river flow.
Threat to Food Security – Higher temperatures increase the risk of droughts, making it harder for crops to grow. Farmers need more irrigation water, which further strains water resources. This results in lower yields and rising food prices. Example: In 2022, wheat production in North India dropped significantly due to an unexpected heatwave, driving up wheat prices nationwide.
HEATWAVE MANAGEMENT STRATEGY IN INDIA
Category
Institution/Strategy
Role & Key Measures
Institutional Framework
India Meteorological Department (IMD)
Provides real-time weather data, forecasts maximum temperatures, and issues heatwave warnings.
Heatwave Early Warning Systems (HEWS)
Issues timely heat alerts to minimize heat-related health impacts.
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)
Conducts national workshops and webinars on heatwave preparedness and mitigation.
National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC)
Monitors heat-related illnesses and casualties through the Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP) under the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare.
National Knowledge Network Programme on Climate Change and Human Health
Conducts studies on heat stress and its impact on human health, particularly occupational exposure.
Heat Action Plans (HAPs)
Overview
Introduced in Ahmedabad (2013); now implemented in 17 heatwave-prone states.
Measures
early warning and inter-agency Response plan; undertaking capacity-building activities for the various stakeholders; awareness generation activities; rescheduling of working hours for outdoor workers; creation of drinking water kiosks etc.
Mitigating Strategies
Cool Roof Deployment
Uses reflective materials (solar paint, mosaic tiles) to reduce indoor temperatures and lower cooling demand. Implemented in Ahmedabad & Hyderabad.
Urban Forestation
Uses techniques like the Miyawaki method to increase green cover and reduce the Urban Heat Island effect.
Forest Conservation & Restoration
Enhances carbon sequestration to reduce temperature extremes and heatwave impacts.
Regenerative Agriculture
Promotes diverse cropping, minimizes chemical use, and improves soil health to enhance climate resilience.
Way forward: Mitigation measures that can be taken
Providing cool shelters: Similar to cyclone and disaster relief centres, public cooling centres can be built where people can go to cool off during extreme heat.
The concept has been explored in Barcelona, Paris and Rotterdam among others.
Improving the built environment: By making them more heat-resilient through the incorporation of better insulation and ventilation systems in buildings, planting more trees etc.
Utilising indigenous knowledge: Usage of indigenous protective methods against heat waves and strokes must be tapped, documented, and researched.
Inclusion of regulative provisions: For example, making it mandatory for components like passive ventilation and cool roof technologies in the Building bylaws to increase thermal comfort.
Capacity building for health care professionals: at the local level to recognize and respond to heat-related illnesses.
#BACK2BASICS :
OTHER DECLARATIONS BY IMD:
Marine Heatwaves (MHW): It is defined when seawater temperatures exceed a seasonally-varying threshold (usually the 90th percentile) for at least 5 consecutive days.
MHWs have increased by up to four-fold in the tropical Indian Ocean, aided by rapid warming in the Indian Ocean and strong El Niños.
A warm night: It’s declared only when the maximum temperature remains 40°C or more. It is defined based on departures of actual minimum temperatures as follows:
Warm night: minimum temperature departure is 4.5°C to 6.4°C
Very warm night: minimum temperature departure is >6.4°C.
Hot and Humid Weather: When observed maximum temperatures over any station remains 3°C above normal along with the above normal relative humidity, it is termed as Hot & Humid Weather over that station.
NDMA GUIDELINES ON HEATWAVES
Avoid going out in the sun, especially between 12.00 noon and 3.00 p.m.
Drink sufficient water as often as possible.
Wear lightweight, light-coloured, loose, and porous cotton clothes. Use protective goggles, an umbrella/hat, shoes or chappals while going out in sun.
Avoid alcohol, tea, coffee and carbonated soft drinks, which dehydrate the body.
Avoid high-protein food and do not eat stale food.
Use ORS, homemade drinks like lassi, torani (rice water), lemon water, buttermilk, etc. which helps to rehydrate the body.
Keep animals in the shade and give them plenty of water to drink.
Keep your home cool, use curtains, shutters or sunshade and open windows at night.
Use fans, damp clothing and take bath in cold water frequently.
Heat Action Plan
A Heat Action Plan (HAP) is a comprehensive strategy developed by governments or organisations to mitigate the health risks associated with extreme heat events.
It includes measures to protect vulnerable populations, provide information and resources, and coordinate responses during heatwaves.
They outline short-term measures, including alerts and inter-departmental coordination, to reduce human casualties. HAPs entail long-term strategies like infrastructure upgrades such as cool roofs and enhanced greenery to prepare for future heat waves based on data analysis.
Odisha first developed a Heat Action Plan in 1999 following more than 2,000 Heat Wave deaths in 1998. Following this, the first city-level Action Plan was developed by Ahmedabad in 2013 following the severe Heat Wave in 2010.
The NDMA and IMD are working with 23 States to develop HAPs. There is no centralised database on HAPs, but at least 23 HAPs exist at the State and city level, with a few States, such as Odisha and Maharashtra, laying out district-level HAPs.
Donald Trump plans to announce that the US will officially refer to the Persian Gulf as the “Arabian Gulf” or “Gulf of Arabia”, aligning with the preferences of Arab nations.
About Persian Gulf
The Persian Gulf is a marginal sea of the Indian Ocean, located in Western Asia.
It is connected to the Arabian Sea through the Strait of Hormuz, a critical maritime chokepoint for global oil shipments.
The gulf spans an area of approximately 251,000 km².
Its average depth is around 50 meters, with a maximum depth of about 90 meters.
The total coastline is roughly 5,117 km, with Iran possessing the longest share (~1,536 km).
The gulf is bordered by:
North: Iran
Southwest: Saudi Arabia, Qatar, UAE
Northwest: Iraq, Kuwait, Bahrain
Key islands:
Qeshm Island (Iran) — the largest island in the Persian Gulf (~1,491 km²), nearly 2.5 times the size of Bahrain.
Bahrain — a sovereign archipelago state with over 50 islands, and home to a major US naval base.
It is recognized officially by the International Hydrographic Organisation (IHO) as the “Persian Gulf”.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:
Statement-I: Sumed pipeline is a strategic route for Persian Gulf oil and natural gas shipments to Europe.
Statement-II: Sumed pipeline connects the Red Sea with the Mediterranean Sea.
Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
Options: (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II explains Statement-I* (b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct, but Statement-II does not explain Statement-I (c) Statement-I is correct, but Statement-II is incorrect (d) Statement-I is incorrect, but Statement-II is correct
The Quad nations—India, Australia, Japan, and the United States—conducted a Tabletop Exercise (TTX) in Honolulu, Hawaii to simulate the launch of the Indo-Pacific Logistics Network (IPLN).
About IPLN (Indo-Pacific Logistics Network)
The IPLN is a Quad-led initiative focused on coordinating shared logistics for civilian disaster response across the Indo-Pacific region.
It aims to enable the rapid deployment of humanitarian aid during natural disasters such as cyclones, tsunamis, and public health emergencies.
The initiative strengthens interoperability, resource-sharing, and real-time coordination among the four Quad countries — India, the US, Japan, and Australia.
Key features of IPLN include digital logistics mapping, joint resource planning, and real-time tracking capabilities.
IPLN was launched through a Tabletop Exercise (TTX) held in Honolulu, Hawaii from April 28 to May 2, 2025.
The initiative complements other Quad efforts like the Indo-Pacific Partnership for Maritime Domain Awareness (IPMDA) and the Quad Pandemic Preparedness Workshop.
IPLN reinforces the Quad’s broader goal of acting as :a “force for good” in the Indo-Pacific region.
The QUAD is a strategic forum comprising India, the United States, Japan, and Australia, aiming to promote a free, open, inclusive, and rules-based Indo-Pacific.
It does not have a formal structure but functions through summits, ministerial meetings, joint exercises, and policy alignment.
Its core objectives include countering China’s influence, and supporting democratic values, human rights, and the rule of law.
The group originated in 2004 during the Indian Ocean tsunami relief efforts and was formally proposed in 2007 by Japanese PM Shinzo Abe.
Although suspended in 2008, the Quad was revived in 2017 due to emerging regional challenges and cooperation needs.
Notable activities include the Malabar Naval Exercises, and initiatives like IPMDA, Quad Fellowship, Open RAN, and AI-ENGAGE, emphasizing humanitarian aid, disaster relief, and emerging technology collaboration.
[UPSC 2023] With reference to India’s projects on connectivity, consider the following statements:
1. East-West Corridor under Golden Quadrilateral Project connects Dibrugarh and Surat.
2. Trilateral Highway connects Moreh in Manipur and Chiang Mai in Thailand via Myanmar.
3. Bangladesh-China -India -Myanmar Economic Corridor connects Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh with Kunming in China.
How many of the above statements are correct?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three* (d) None
To channel investments into clean-energy projects and climate-resilient infrastructure, the Finance Ministry has released a draft document titled ‘Framework of India’s Climate Finance Taxonomy’.
What is a Climate Finance Taxonomy?
A CFT is a classification system that defines which economic activities qualify as climate-friendly or sustainable investments.
It helps investors, financial institutions, and policymakers channel funds into low-emission and climate-resilient projects.
It acts as a safeguard against green-washing, where non-sustainable initiatives are falsely labelled as green.
It supports the mobilization of finance necessary to achieve global climate goals, including Net Zero targets.
It offers a structured decision-making framework to ensure that investments deliver measurable environmental benefits.
About India’s Draft ‘Climate Taxonomy’ (May 2025)
The Finance Ministry released the draft ‘Framework of India’s Climate Finance Taxonomy’ to help meet India’s Net Zero by 2070 goal while maintaining energy access.
It categorizes activities as:
Climate Supportive Activities: Those that reduce GHG emissions, enable adaptation, or promote clean tech R&D.
Climate Transition Activities: Those that encourage gradual progress, especially in hard-to-abate sectors like steel, iron, and cement.
It aligns with the national vision of ‘Viksit Bharat 2047’.
It includes key sectors such as power, mobility, buildings, agriculture, food, and water security.
The framework was first announced in the Union Budget 2025.
Global Context and Negotiation Relevance:
A standard taxonomy is critical in global forums like the Conference of Parties (COP) to resolve disputes over climate finance commitments.
Developing nations, including India, advocate for grants and technology transfers, while developed countries often include private investments in their finance counts.
At the Baku Climate Conference, developed countries pledged $300 billion annually by 2035, far below the $1.35 trillion required.
India’s taxonomy aims to provide a clear benchmark for climate-related financial flows, promoting transparency, credibility, and trust in international climate funding.
[UPSC 2015] With reference to ‘Green Climate Fund’ is/are correct?
1. It is intended to assist the developing countries in adaptation and mitigation practices to counter climate change.
2. It is founded under the aegis of UNEP, OECD, Asian Development Bank and World Bank.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Options: (a) 1 only* (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
[UPSC 2023] Give out the major sources of terror funding in India and the efforts being made to curtail these sources. In the light of this, also discuss the aim and objective of the ‘No Money for Terror (NMFT)’ Conference recently held at New Delhi in November 2022.
Linkage: Pakistan’s terror infrastructure, including ISI funding, Gulf-based private donors, diaspora contributions through charities, business operations, money laundering via hawala networks, narcotics trafficking, and cryptocurrency. This question directly asks about the sources of terror funding, which is a central theme in the source.
Mentor’s Comment: The Soviet-Afghan War in 1979 was a turning point when Pakistan’s intelligence agency (ISI), with support from U.S. funding, started building a network of jihadi groups. This network has since developed into the advanced terrorist groups we see today. Pakistan intentionally supported these fighters, who had various goals, including attacking Kashmir, gaining control in Afghanistan, causing sectarian violence, and fighting ideological battles. Recent data shows that terrorism sponsored by Pakistan has been rising again in the region.
Today’s editorial looks at Pakistan’s long-standing terrorist network using open-source intelligence, declassified documents, and academic studies. This content would help in GS Paper II (International Relation) and GS Paper III (Internal Security).
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Pakistan’s security forces have supported terrorist groups for a long time, seeing them as useful for their goals. Since 2008, Pakistan has repeatedly been added to and removed from the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) ‘grey list’ because it has not effectively stopped the funding of terrorism.
What role did the Soviet-Afghan War of 1979 play in the evolution of Pakistan’s terror infrastructure?
ISI’s Strategic Empowerment with U.S. and Saudi Funding: During the war, Pakistan’s Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) became the main conduit for channeling billions of dollars in U.S. (CIA) and Saudi funds to Afghan mujahideen fighting Soviet forces. Eg: This funding network empowered the ISI to build covert training camps and logistical bases, which later supported outfits like Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) and Haqqani Network.
Creation of a Jihadi Ecosystem and Proxy Network: The war institutionalised jihad as a tool of foreign policy, with ISI actively recruiting, training, and radicalising fighters. These fighters, once trained, were later redeployed for operations in Kashmir, Afghanistan, and elsewhere. Eg: The Harakat ul-Mujahidin (HUM), originally formed to fight in Afghanistan, later became one of the first Pakistani terror outfits to target Indian interests in Kashmir.
Spread of Radical Ideology through Madrassas and Seminaries: To support the Afghan jihad, Pakistan encouraged the growth of radical madrassas, often funded by Gulf donors, to indoctrinate youth. These institutions outlived the war and became feeders for future terror groups. Eg: Many madrassas aligned with Ahl-e-Hadith and Deobandi ideologies became recruiting hubs for groups like Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM) and LeT.
Where are the major training camps and headquarters of Pakistan-supported terrorist groups located?
Pakistan-Occupied Kashmir (PoK): PoK serves as a key launchpad and training ground for anti-India terror operations, especially focused on Kashmir. Eg: Training camps of Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) have been reported in Muzaffarabad and Kotli, where cadres are prepared for infiltration into India.
Punjab Province (Especially Lahore and Bahawalpur): Several extremist groups operate openly or under charitable fronts in Punjab, with strong logistical and financial networks. Eg: The headquarters of Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM) is based in Bahawalpur, and Jamaat-ud-Dawa (JuD), the front of LeT, has operated from Muridke near Lahore.
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP): The rugged terrain along the Afghanistan border provides safe havens for jihadist groups with transnational reach. Eg: The Haqqani Network, linked to the Afghan Taliban, has operated out of North Waziristan, conducting cross-border attacks into Afghanistan.
How is the terror network in Pakistan financed and sustained despite international pressure?
State and Deep State Support: Elements within Pakistan’s military and intelligence agencies, particularly the Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), have been accused of providing logistical, financial, and strategic support to terrorist groups to serve foreign policy objectives, especially in India and Afghanistan. Eg: The ISI’s backing of Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) was exposed during investigations into the 2008 Mumbai attacks, where LeT operatives received training, funds, and guidance.
Charities and Front Organizations: Terrorist groups often operate under the guise of charitable organizations to raise funds both domestically and internationally. These organizations collect donations in the name of humanitarian relief, which are then diverted for militant activities. Eg: The Falah-e-Insaniat Foundation (FIF), a front for Jamaat-ud-Dawa (JuD), raised significant funds until it was banned for links to LeT.
Drug Trafficking, Hawala, and Extortion: Illicit economies, including narcotics trafficking, smuggling, extortion, and the hawala system (an informal money transfer network), are widely used by terrorist groups to fund their operations. Eg: The Afghan-Pakistan border region, particularly in Balochistan and former FATA, is a major route for drug trafficking, which provides revenue to groups like the Haqqani Network and TTP.
Why has Pakistan repeatedly appeared on the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) grey list rather in black list?
Partial Compliance and Political Commitments: Pakistan has often shown partial compliance with FATF action plans, such as enacting anti-terror financing laws or prosecuting select terror operatives. These steps, while often symbolic or limited, provide just enough movement to avoid blacklisting. Eg: After being grey-listed in 2018, Pakistan passed laws to regulate charitable donations and froze some accounts linked to UN-designated terrorists like Hafiz Saeed.
Geopolitical Considerations and Diplomatic Shielding: Global powers, especially China, Turkey, and Saudi Arabia, have used their influence within FATF to shield Pakistan from being blacklisted due to strategic and political interests, including Pakistan’s role in regional stability and Afghanistan. Eg: In several FATF meetings, China and Turkey have openly opposed efforts to blacklist Pakistan, arguing that it has made progress.
How did the Indian government execute OPERATION SINDOOR?
Response Triggered: Launched in retaliation to the April 22, 2025, Pahalgam attack that killed 26 civilians. Eg: The attack by a group linked to LeT prompted the operation.
Precision Airstrikes: Executed 24 missile strikes on nine targeted sites in Pakistan’s Punjab and administered Kashmir regions, lasting about 23 minutes. Eg: Sites in Bahawalpur and Muzaffarabad were among those hit.
Advanced Military Assets: Deployed Rafale jets with precision-guided SCALP missiles and AASM bombs to ensure accurate targeting with minimal collateral damage. Eg: The use of advanced munitions highlighted India’s operational efficiency.
Disruption of Terror Infrastructure: Targeted key terrorist facilities such as training camps, recruitment centers, and armories linked to groups like LeT and JeM. Eg: A strike in Bahawalpur reportedly affected close aides of a major terror leader.
Aftermath and Escalation: The operation led to heightened tensions, with Pakistan condemning the strikes and both sides engaging in artillery exchanges along the Line of Control. Eg: The subsequent border clashes underscored the operation’s significant impact on regional stability.
Way forward:
Global Accountability and Financial Sanctions: Strengthen FATF enforcement and international cooperation to impose targeted sanctions on Pakistan-based terror networks and their sponsors. Eg: Revive monitoring mechanisms to ensure closure of front charities like JuD and FIF.
Regional Counter-Terror Framework: India and like-minded nations should push for a South Asia-focused multilateral counter-terrorism initiative with intelligence sharing and cross-border coordination. Eg: Build on QUAD and SCO platforms to diplomatically isolate state-sponsored terrorism.
India ranks 130th out of 193 countries in the 2025 Human Development Index (HDI), up from 133rd in 2022.
What is the Human Development Index (HDI)?
The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite statistic developed by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
Composite Measure of Development: The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite index that measures a country’s overall development based on three key factors: life expectancy (health), education (mean and expected years of schooling), and standard of living (GNI per capita).
Ranking and Insights: HDI ranks countries on a scale from 0 to 1, where a higher value indicates better human development.
Why has India’s HDI improved?
Health (Life Expectancy at Birth): HDI measures the average number of years a person can expect to live, reflecting the overall health conditions in a country. Eg: In 2023, India’s life expectancy increased to 72 years, marking a significant improvement since 1990, when it was just 58.6 years.
Education (Mean Years of Schooling and Expected Years of Schooling): HDI considers the average number of years adults aged 25 and older have spent in school (mean years of schooling) and the number of years a child of school-entry age can expect to receive (expected years of schooling). Eg: In 2023, children in India are expected to stay in school for 13 years on average, up from 8.2 years in 1990.
Standard of Living (Gross National Income per Capita): HDI includes the per capita income adjusted for purchasing power parity (PPP), which gives a sense of the country’s economic prosperity and standard of living. Eg: India’s GNI per capita increased from $2,167 in 1990 to $9,046 in 2023, reflecting a growth in economic well-being.
Inequality Adjustments: HDI adjusts for inequality in each of its three dimensions—health, education, and standard of living—through the Inequality-adjusted HDI (IHDI). The more inequality there is in a country, the lower the adjusted HDI score will be. Eg: India’s HDI value of 0.685 in 2023 was influenced by inequalities, including gender and income disparities, which the report highlighted as a key challenge.
Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI): HDI is indirectly linked to the MPI, which measures poverty beyond income, including deprivations in health, education, and living standards. Eg: India has made significant progress in reducing multidimensional poverty, with 13.5 crore people escaping poverty between 2015-16 and 2019-21.
How has the pandemic affected India’s HDI recovery?
Health Impact: The pandemic strained India’s healthcare system, leading to higher mortality rates and disruptions in healthcare services, which affected life expectancy. Eg: The pandemic slowed India’s progress towards improving life expectancy, though it rebounded in the subsequent years, reaching 72 years in 2023.
Education Disruptions: School closures and lack of access to online education hindered educational outcomes, especially for underprivileged children. Eg: While the expected years of schooling improved, the pandemic delayed educational progress, particularly in rural areas.
Economic Setbacks: The lockdowns and economic disruptions due to the pandemic led to a sharp contraction in economic activities, affecting income levels and jobs, particularly in the informal sector. Eg: India’s GNI per capita growth faced a slowdown, though it eventually rebounded, reaching $9,046 in 2023.
What challenges remain in improving India’s HDI?
Income Inequality: Despite progress, income disparity remains a major challenge, with the rich benefiting disproportionately from economic growth, while the poor remain marginalized. Eg: India’s HDI is impacted by a 30.7% loss due to income inequalities, which continues to drag down overall development outcomes.
Gender Disparities: The gender gap in labor force participation and political representation limits progress in improving India’s HDI. Women’s workforce participation remains low, and the gender wage gap is significant. Eg: The female labor participation rate stood at 41.7% in 2023-24, but a supportive ecosystem for women’s work retention and political representation is still lacking.
How can India use AI to address development while avoiding inequality? (Way forward)
AI in Public Service Delivery: AI can streamline public services, making them more efficient, transparent, and accessible, especially to marginalized communities. Eg: AI-driven systems can help in targeted welfare distribution, ensuring resources like food and healthcare reach those most in need, reducing administrative inefficiencies.
Inclusive Education and Skill Development: Leveraging AI for personalized learning can bridge gaps in educational access and quality, particularly for underserved areas. Eg: AI-based platforms like Byju’s and other ed-tech initiatives provide tailored education, improving learning outcomes for students in rural and remote areas.
AI for Job Creation and Economic Inclusion: AI can be used to create new job opportunities and enhance existing ones, especially in sectors like agriculture, healthcare, and manufacturing. Ensuring that AI adoption leads to inclusive economic growth can help reduce inequality. Eg: AI-driven agricultural technologies can optimize crop yields and provide real-time data to farmers, increasing productivity and income, especially for those in rural areas.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2019] Despite Consistent experience of High growth, India still goes with the lowest indicators of human development. Examine the issues that make balanced and inclusive development elusive.
Linkage: The paradox of economic growth not translating into high human development indicators, which is a central theme when discussing India’s HDI rank and the challenges despite improvements. It also touches upon inclusive development, another concept related to the HDR’s focus on reducing inequalities
