Researchers from the CSIR-Central Leather Research Institute (CLRI), Chennai has developed a new nanozyme, Cu-Phen, using a catalyst-by-design strategy. A nanozyme is a type of synthetic enzyme made from nanomaterials (extremely tiny particles) that can mimic the function of natural enzymes in biological systems.
About the Metallo-Nanozymes
Cu-Phen (Copper-Phenylalanine) is a type of metallo-nanozyme developed by Indian researchers.
It is a synthetic enzyme that mimics the functions of natural enzymes in the body, particularly in controlling the flow of energy at the cellular level.
It is made by combining copper ions (Cu²⁺) with phenylalanine, an amino acid, using a special design method called “catalyst-by-design”.
It forms a self-assembled nano-structure with a well-defined active site, which is where the enzyme’s function occurs.
This structure helps Cu-Phen control the electron transfer process, which is important for many biological functions.
Unlike traditional nanozymes, which often have poorly defined active sites, Cu-Phen has a precisely structured active site, allowing it to work more efficiently like natural enzymes in the body.
Cu-Phen interacts with cytochrome c, a protein that plays a key role in the electron transport chain, which is part of how our body generates energy.
It helps reduce oxygen to water without producing harmful substances called reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can damage cells.
Potential Applications
Cu-Phen could be used to makeenergy systems more efficient, like in bioenergy (energy from living things), by mimicking natural energy-making processes.
It could help treat diseases like neurodegenerative diseases and cancer by controlling energy production in cells and reducing harmful effects on the body.
These nanozymes can help clean water and make energysystemswork better, while reducing pollution and harmful by-products.
Cu-Phen can also be used in factories to help make useful products like medicines and chemicals by working like artificial enzymes.
This new nanozyme is a step forward in creating artificial enzymes that could be used in many areas like medicine, energy, and manufacturing.
[UPSC 2022] Consider the following statements :
1. Other than those made by humans, nanoparticles do not exist in nature.
2. Nanoparticles of some metallic oxides are used in the manufacture of some cosmetics.
3. Nanoparticles of some commercial products which enter the environment are unsafe for humans.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct ?
A recent study in Nature Geoscience suggests that soil moisture levels could help predict severe thunderstorms, like mesoscale convective systems (MCSs), especially in regions like India.
About Mesoscale Convective Systems (MCS):
MCSs are larger than individual thunderstorms but smaller than larger weather systems like cyclones.
They typically cover areas between 100 to 1,000 km in diameter.
They form when warm, moist air rises, creating storms that feed off each other, growing in size and intensity as they move across the region.
They can cause flash floods, damaging winds, and severe thunderstorms, and are often responsible for large-scale weather events.
In tropical regions, MCSs account for 50 to 90 % of total rainfall, making them a major cause of severe weather-related damage.
A notable example is the March 2024 thunderstorm in West Bengal, which caused significant property damage and loss of life.
Soil Moisture’s Role in MCS as per the Study:
Shifts in soil moisture can be detectedtwo to five days before the formation of storms, providing critical lead time for early warnings in vulnerable regions.
Contrasting soil moisture levels over large areas (hundreds of kilometers) lead to changes in atmospheric conditions, including A notable example is the March 2024 thunderstorm in West Bengal, which caused significant property damage and loss of life.
Larger contrasts in moisture content between dry and wet regions cause greater temperature differences, which in turn lead to changes in wind direction and speed.
These variations contribute to turbulence, making storms more intense and spreading rainfall over a wider area.
[UPSC 2013] During a thunderstorm, the thunder in the skies is produced by the
1. meeting of cumulonimbus clouds in the sky 2. lightning that separates the nimbus clouds 3. violent upward movement of air and water particles
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) None of the above produces the thunder
[UPSC 2024] What changes has the Union Government recently introduced in the domain of Centre-State relations? Suggest measures to be adopted to build the trust between the Centre and the States and for strengthening federalism.
Linkage: The readjustment of Lok Sabha seats, especially if perceived as disproportionately benefiting some states over others, can significantly impact Centre-State relations and the balance of power within the federal system.
Mentor’s Comment: Delimitation means fixing or re-fixing the boundaries of election constituencies. This is done by the Delimitation Commission, but only after a Census is held. According to Article 82 of the Constitution, after each Census, the number of Lok Sabha seats should be adjusted to match the population growth. However, the current strength of the Lok Sabha is based on the 1971 Census, when India’s population was about 54.79 crore. As of March 2025, this number is estimated to have increased to 141 crore. Despite this massive population growth over the last 50 years, the number of Lok Sabha seats has remained the same, as the seat count was frozen based on the 1971 population through a constitutional amendment until 2026.
Today’s editorial talks about the problems and discussions around changing the number of Lok Sabha seats based on the next Census. This topic is useful for GS Paper 2 in the UPSC Mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
The issue of changing the number of Lok Sabha seats based on the upcoming Census is being widely discussed across the country.
What is the primary difference between the readjustment of Lok Sabha seats and delimitation?
Aspect
Readjustment of Lok Sabha Seats
Delimitation
Example (Eg)
Definition
Changing the number of seats allocated to each State based on population.
Redrawing the boundaries of constituencies within a State.
After 2026, Uttar Pradesh may get more Lok Sabha seats (readjustment).
Constitutional Basis
Governed by Article 82; done after every Census through Parliament.
Done by an independent Delimitation Commission after a Census.
Constituency borders in Tamil Nadu were redrawn in 2008 (delimitation).
Focus Area
Focuses on inter-State seat distribution to reflect population changes.
Focuses on intra-State constituency adjustment.
Kerala may retain 20 seats, but constituency borders may shift (delimitation).
Why was the number of Lok Sabha seats frozen based on the 1971 Census figures until 2026?
Promote Population Control: The freeze aimed to incentivize States to control population growth. Eg:Kerala and Tamil Nadu implemented successful family planning programs, and the freeze ensured they weren’t penalized for lower population growth.
Prevent Disproportionate Political Power: If seats were allocated purely on population, high-growth States would dominate Parliament. Eg:Uttar Pradesh, with population increasing from 8.38 crore (1971) to 24.1 crore (2025), could demand up to 240 seats, disrupting national balance.
Maintain Inter-State Equity: The goal was to maintain fair representation for all States despite demographic differences. Eg: Southern States like Kerala (68% population rise) would have lost out to northern States with over 200% increase.
Allow Time for Demographic Stabilization: It provided time for States with high fertility rates to stabilize their population before readjustment. Eg:Bihar’s population grew from 4.21 crore (1971) to 13.1 crore (2025), needing time to catch up on family planning efforts.
Backed by Constitutional Amendments: The 42nd (1976) and 84th (2001) Amendments legally froze the seat distribution until after the 2026 Census, reflecting national consensus. Eg: Article 82 was amended to delay readjustment, reinforcing the political importance of stability and fairness.
Which States are likely to gain the most seats if readjustment is done strictly based on population growth?
High Population Growth in Northern States: States like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar have witnessed exponential population growth since 1971, leading to a higher claim for more seats if readjustment is done purely on population figures. Eg:Uttar Pradesh grew from 8.38 crore (1971) to 24.1 crore (2025) and may get up to 240 seats, up from the current 80.
Large Base and Sustained Growth in Central India: States such as Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan, with relatively higher growth rates, are also poised to gain significantly in seat allocation. Eg:Madhya Pradesh, with its growing population and current 29 seats, could see a proportional jump in its representation.
Heavily Populated but Slower-Control States Like West Bengal and Maharashtra: These States have large populations and moderately high growth rates, placing them in the category of beneficiaries in seat readjustment. Eg:Maharashtra, with a population exceeding 12 crore, may go beyond its present 48 seats to possibly 60 or more.
Which States fear losing political influence as a result?
Southern States with Successful Population Control: States like Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh fear marginalisation because they effectively implemented family planning and now risk being underrepresented in Parliament. Eg:Kerala grew only 68% since 1971 and may gain very few seats (from 20 to 34), while Uttar Pradesh could triple its seats.
Concern over Disproportionate Power Shift to the North: Southern leaders worry that population-based seat allocation would reward States with poor governance on population control and shift national decision-making disproportionately northward.
When was the last Lok Sabha seat readjustment, and when is the next one due?
Last Readjustment – Based on 1971 Census: The last readjustment of Lok Sabha seats was done based on the 1971 Census figures. Eg: The number of seats was fixed at 543 after the 1971 population was taken into account (approx. 54.8 crore).
Freeze Imposed Until 2026: The 42nd and 84th Constitutional Amendments froze the number of Lok Sabha seats based on the 1971 data, to encourage population control across States. Eg: This freeze was intended to avoid penalizing States like Kerala and Tamil Nadu which successfully limited population growth.
Next Readjustment Due After 2026: The next readjustment is constitutionally mandated to happen after the first Census conducted post-2026, which is expected to be the 2031 Census. Eg: If readjusted based on estimated 2025 population (approx. 141 crore), total seats may rise to around 800–912.
What would be the impact on center-state relations?
Federal Tensions and Demands for Autonomy: Southern and smaller States may feel marginalized and push for more fiscal and legislative autonomy. This could strain Centre-State relations and deepen regional political divides. Eg: Tamil Nadu or Telangana may seek greater control over education, health, or language policy as compensation for lower parliamentary weight.
Unequal Voice in Resource Allocation: More seats mean more bargaining power during budget debates and policy framing. States with fewer seats may feel sidelined in central schemes and fund distribution. Eg: Madhya Pradesh may influence infrastructure spending more than Mizoram, despite both having important developmental needs.
Way forward:
Balanced Formula Beyond Population Alone: Adopt a hybrid model that considers not only population but also parameters like the human development index (HDI), population control efforts, and geographical diversity to ensure fairness. Eg: Southern States like Tamil Nadu, despite lower population growth, could be rewarded for their social indicators and governance.
Constitutional and Political Consensus Building: Initiate bipartisan discussions and possibly form a national commission to recommend a fair readjustment mechanism, preserving federal balance and cooperative federalism. Eg: Ensuring that both high-growth and low-growth States feel represented will prevent regional discontent and maintain national unity.
India’s cotton production has dropped by 25% over the last 10 years because of the pink bollworm. Some seed companies have created new genetically modified cotton varieties that can resist this pest, but government rules are delaying their approval and use.
Why has cotton output fallen despite Bt cotton’s earlier success?
Resistance Development in Pests: The pink bollworm (PBW), a monophagous pest, developed resistance to Bt cotton toxins (cry1Ac and cry2Ab) over time. Eg: A study published in Nature showed PBW resistance by 2014, just 12 years after Bt cotton’s introduction.
Pest Adaptability and Short Life Cycle: PBW’s short life cycle (25–35 days) allows multiple generations in one crop season, accelerating resistance buildup. Eg: In central India, PBW reached economic threshold levels by 2014, impacting yields.
Yield Stagnation and Decline: The national average lint yield rose to 566 kg/ha in 2013–14 but has fallen to around 436–437 kg/ha in recent years. Eg: This drop mirrors increased pest pressure and reduced effectiveness of Bt technology.
Increased Import Dependence: Falling domestic production has led to India importing more cotton than it exports. Eg: In 2024–25, imports are projected at 30 lakh bales vs exports of 17 lakh bales.
Lack of New GM Approvals: Regulatory and political hurdles have stalled the approval of next-gen GM cotton hybrids resistant to PBW. Eg: No new GM cotton hybrid has been commercialised since Bollgard-II in 2006.
How has the pink bollworm turned India into a net cotton importer?
Destruction of Cotton Bolls and Lint Quality: PBW larvae bore into cotton bolls, feeding on seeds and lint, reducing both yield and fibre quality. Eg: This led to a production drop from 398 lakh bales (2013–14) to just 294 lakh bales (2024–25 projected) — the lowest since 2008–09.
Resistance to Bt Cotton: PBW developed resistance to the Bt toxins (cry1Ac and cry2Ab) used in GM cotton, making current hybrids ineffective. Eg: Resistance was first noted in central India around 2014, eventually spreading to southern and northern zones.
Decline in Exports, Rise in Imports: As production fell and quality declined, exports dropped and imports surged. Eg: In 2024–25, India is expected to import 30 lakh bales but export only 17 lakh bales, reversing its earlier status as a net exporter.
Which new genetic technologies are Indian seed companies using to combat PBW resistance in cotton crops?
Introduction of Novel Bt Genes: Companies are using Bt genes not previously deployed in India to overcome existing PBW resistance. Eg: Bioseed Research India is conducting trials with its ‘cry8Ea1’ gene-based hybrid under the proprietary BioCotX24A1 event.
Use of Synthetic Bt Genes: Synthetic versions of Bt genes are engineered to enhance toxicity and overcome pest resistance. Eg: Rasi Seeds has developed hybrids expressing a synthetic cry1c gene for improved resistance to PBW.
Deployment of Chimeric Bt Genes: Chimeric genes combine segments of multiple Bt genes to create a novel protein with broader insecticidal action.Eg: Ankur Seeds, in collaboration with NBRI, is trialing cotton hybrids using a chimeric Bt protein from Event 519.
When did the pink bollworm start crossing the economic threshold level in various cotton-growing zones of India?
Central Zone (Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh): PBW crossed the ETL around 2014, marking the beginning of widespread yield loss in the heartland of cotton production. Eg: Farmers in Maharashtra began reporting severe PBW damage post-2014 despite using Bt cotton.
Southern Zone (Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu): The pest breached the ETL by 2017, affecting the second major cotton belt in the country. Eg: Telangana experienced major crop losses during the 2017–18 season due to PBW infestation.
Northern Zone (Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan): PBW reached ETL in the northern states by 2021, completing its spread across all major cotton-growing regions. Eg: In 2021, Haryana reported pink bollworm infestation even in previously unaffected areas.
How are regulatory hurdles affecting the commercialisation of new GM cotton hybrids in India?
Lengthy Approval Process: Multi-stage field trials (event selection, BRL-1, BRL-2) take years before commercial approval is granted. Eg: Bioseed’s ‘cry8Ea1’ GM cotton is still in BRL-1 trial phase, needing further years of testing before release.
Lack of New GM Approvals Since 2006: No new GM cotton hybrid has been approved for commercial cultivation since Monsanto’s Bollgard-II in 2006. Eg: Despite several companies developing PBW-resistant varieties, commercialisation remains stalled.
Opposition from States and Activist Groups: State-level permissions and activist resistance delay or block field trials, affecting research and rollout. Eg: Rasi Seeds and Ankur Seeds await approvals for first-year trials amid regulatory scrutiny and local objections.
What advantages does India have in cotton production and trade?
Favorable Climate and Large Cotton-Growing Area: India has a vast area suitable for cotton cultivation, with diverse agro-climatic zones supporting long growing seasons. Eg: India is the world’s largest cotton producer, with major states like Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Telangana contributing significantly.
Low Export Duties Compared to Other Countries: India faces lower tariffs on its textile exports in key markets like the US, making its products more competitive. Eg: Under the US’s “reciprocal tariff” policy, Indian textile exports face only 27% duty, while China’s face 54% and Bangladesh’s 37%.
Way forward:
Accelerate Regulatory Approvals for Next-Gen GM Cotton: The government should streamline and fast-track the approval process for new GM hybrids with novel, synthetic, or chimeric Bt genes to restore cotton productivity and pest control efficacy. Eg: Timely clearance of Bioseed’s cry8Ea1 and Rasi’s synthetic cry1c cotton hybrids can help tackle PBW resistance.
Promote Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and Farmer Awareness: Combine genetic solutions with IPM strategies—crop rotation, pheromone traps, and timely pesticide use—to delay resistance buildup. Launch nationwide farmer education programs on early detection and field hygiene. Eg: Maharashtra’s IPM pilot schemes have shown promise in reducing PBW infestations when practiced consistently.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2021] What are the present challenges before crop diversification? How do emerging technologies provide an opportunity for crop diversification?
Linkage: Vulnerability of a monoculture system relying heavily on Bt cotton, crop diversification could be a strategy to reduce dependence on a single crop and potentially break pest cycles, although the article focuses on technological solutions within cotton itself.
The data shows that many police officers accept using forceful methods like shouting, threatening, slapping, or even harsh physical torture during investigations, even for small crimes.
What proportion of police support violence against serious offenders for the greater good?
Majority Support Violence: 63% of police personnel believe it’s acceptable to use violence on serious offenders for the greater good of society. Eg: Officers may justify beating a suspected murderer if they believe it helps prevent future crimes.
Strong vs Moderate Support: Among those who agreed, 22% strongly agreed and 41% moderately agreed with using violence. Eg: Some officers might strongly feel torture is necessary in terrorism cases, while others may support limited force.
Opposition is Minor: Only 35% of police personnel opposed the idea of violence, showing that a minority disagrees with such practices. Eg: These officers might believe in legal methods like investigation and interrogation without physical harm.
How does this infringe Fundamental Rights?
Violation of Right to Life and Personal Liberty (Article 21): Coercive actions like custodial torture and third-degree methods breach the right to live with dignity. Eg: A suspect beaten during interrogation suffers physical and mental trauma without legal conviction.
Denial of Protection Against Self-Incrimination (Article 20(3)): Forcing suspects to confess under pressure or torture violates their right to remain silent during interrogation. Eg: A person forced to admit guilt in a theft case, even if innocent, due to police pressure.
Breach of Equality Before Law (Article 14): Targeting specific individuals like history-sheeters or the poor with harsh treatment undermines equal legal protection. Eg: Repeat offenders being tortured without due process, while others get fair legal treatment.
Why do many police personnel justify torture in national security and serious crime cases?
Perceived Urgency in National Security Cases: Many police believe torture is necessary to extract crucial information in time-sensitive situations like terrorism. Eg: 42% of police personnel strongly supported torture during terrorism-related interrogations.
Belief in Strong Punishment for Heinous Crimes: Officers feel that serious crimes such as rape and murder deserve harsher treatment to deliver justice quickly. Eg: 34% of police strongly supported torture in cases involving rape and serious violent crimes.
Assumption that Certain Suspects Are Repeat Offenders: There’s a mindset that “history-sheeters” don’t respond to normal interrogation, justifying harsher methods. Eg: 28% of police strongly agreed that torture is justified for repeat or habitual offenders.
What are the coercive methods that police frequently justify during interrogations, even for minor offenses?
Verbal Abuse and Threats: A large portion of police personnel find it acceptable to verbally abuse or threaten suspects in minor crimes like theft. Eg: 49% said such verbal abuse and threats are justified even in petty cases.
Slapping Suspects: Physical force such as slapping is often seen as a mild and acceptable tactic. Eg: 32% of police justified slapping suspects during minor offence investigations.
Use of Third-Degree Methods: Even for minor crimes, some support more extreme measures like third-degree torture to get confessions. Eg: 9% of personnel justified using third-degree methods in minor cases.
Threats as Routine Practice: Many police reported that threats are a frequent part of their interrogation techniques. Eg: 26% said threats are used “often” during investigations; 34% said they occur “sometimes.”
Light Force Considered Normal: Slapping or applying light physical force is not seen as excessive by a significant number of police officers. Eg: 18% admitted it’s commonly done, and another 28% said it happens occasionally.
What are the steps taken by the Indian government?
Implementation of Guidelines by Supreme Court: The government follows the D.K. Basu vs. State of West Bengal (1996) guidelines issued by the Supreme Court to prevent custodial violence. Eg: Police are required to inform relatives of an arrest and maintain arrest records.
Enactment of Human Rights Protection Laws: The government established legal bodies to monitor human rights violations. Eg: The Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993 led to the creation of the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC).
Police Reforms and Training Programs: Reforms aim to modernize police functioning and encourage ethical conduct through training. Eg: The National Police Mission promotes citizen-centric policing and sensitization on human rights.
Way forward:
Independent Investigation and Accountability Mechanisms: Establish robust, independent bodies at the state level to investigate complaints of custodial violence and misconduct. Eg: Set up Police Complaints Authorities (PCA) with judicial oversight to ensure fair and transparent inquiries into custodial torture.
Comprehensive Sensitisation and Legal Training: Mandate regular training for police personnel on human rights, ethical investigation practices, and legal procedures. Eg: Include modules on constitutional rights, custodial safeguards, and mental health awareness in police academies and refresher courses.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2019] The police reforms in India have been left halfway due to lack of political will. Critically analyse.
Linkage: The ongoing justification of coercive tactics, even in minor crimes, shows ineffective implementation of police reforms in India. It remains incomplete, largely due to a lack of political will, weak implementation, and cultural resistance within the force.
A national budget isn’t just about numbers—it’s a roadmap that reflects a country’s economic goals, governance approach, and policy priorities. In a democracy, the power to oversee public spending should rest with the people’s representatives, ensuring financial discipline, transparency, and accountability.
However, in India, Parliament plays a minimal role in shaping the Budget. Instead of thorough discussions and approvals by lawmakers, the process is largely controlled by the executive, leaving elected representatives with little say in financial decisions that impact the entire nation. This raises concerns about democratic oversight and fiscal accountability.
Shouldn’t elected representatives have a greater say in deciding how the nation’s money is spent?
The Budget as a Pillar of Democracy
The Budget serves as the financial blueprint of a nation, determining the allocation of resources and setting the government’s economic and social priorities. It acts as a pillar of democracy by the following ways:
Ensures Accountability & Transparency – A well-structured budget allows elected representatives to scrutinize government spending, ensuring that public funds are used efficiently and for the public good.
Prevents Executive Overreach – Legislative control over finances acts as a safeguard against unchecked government power, reinforcing the principle of separation of powers in a democracy.
Reflects People’s Priorities – Through parliamentary debates and discussions, the budget aligns with citizens’ needs, ensuring that policies address economic and social challenges effectively.
Promotes Economic Stability – Greater legislative engagement in budgeting leads to balanced policies, reducing fiscal mismanagement and ensuring long-term financial sustainability.
Strengthens Public Trust – When governments are transparent about financial planning and expenditure, it enhances public confidence in democratic institutions and governance.
Reasons for Structural Weakness in India’s Budgetary Process
Lack of Legislative Involvement in Budget-Making
Budget Drafted Behind Closed Doors: Unlike other laws, the Budget is almost entirely prepared by the Finance Ministry, with little to no input from Parliament. Key decisions are made by the Finance Minister and senior bureaucrats, while even Cabinet Ministers remain largely unaware until the final presentation.
Minimal Transparency Compared to Other Democracies: Many developed nations involve their legislatures in budget formulation, ensuring greater accountability:
United States: Congress holds extensive pre-Budget discussions, and the President’s proposal is thoroughly debated before approval.
Germany & Sweden: Parliamentary committees review budget proposals in advance, allowing lawmakers to shape financial policies.
India’s Weak Parliamentary Role in Budgeting: In India, Parliament is largely excluded from early-stage budget discussions, limiting its influence on financial planning. By the time the Budget is presented, most decisions are final, leaving little room for meaningful debate or amendments.
Insufficient Time for Debate and Review
Rushed Budget Discussions: Once the Budget is presented in the Lok Sabha, Parliament is expected to debate, scrutinize, and approve it within a short timeframe. This often results in hurried discussions, where key financial decisions do not receive the detailed analysis they require.
Compressed Timeline for Approval: The Budget is usually presented in early February and must be passed before the end of March. Given the complexity of financial allocations across various sectors, this tight schedule limits meaningful debate and informed decision-making.
Lack of Rigorous Scrutiny: With limited time, MPs struggle to thoroughly analyze spending plans, assess their impact, or suggest substantial modifications.As a result, many budgetary provisions get approved without deep examination, weakening parliamentary oversight over public finance.
Weak Role of Parliamentary Committees
Limited Oversight Power: Parliamentary standing committees are meant to ensure oversight, but their influence on the Budget is minimal. They can review financial allocations but lack the authority to enforce changes.
Non-Binding Recommendations: The Departmentally Related Standing Committees (DRSCs) analyze budgetary demands from various ministries. However, their recommendations are not binding, allowing the government to overlook their suggestions without consequence.
Ineffective Scrutiny: Since the government is not obligated to act on committee recommendations, parliamentary scrutiny of financial policies remains weak. This reduces the effectiveness of democratic checks and balances in budget-making.
Stronger Legislative Committees in Other Democracies: Countries like Canada, Australia, and the UK empower their legislative committees to play an active role in budget analysis. Their recommendations hold greater weight in shaping financial policies.
Access to Independent Economic Research: Many developed democracies have dedicated budget offices that provide legislators with independent economic analysis. This ensures that lawmakers can make informed decisions and offer well-researched recommendations on fiscal policies.
The Marginal Role of Rajya Sabha: Another structural weakness in India’s budgetary process is the limited role of the Rajya Sabha (Upper House) in financial matters.
While the Rajya Sabha is a key legislative body responsible for reviewing laws and policies, it has little authority over budgetary decisions.
According to Article 110 of the Indian Constitution, the Budget is classified as a Money Bill, meaning it is primarily the domain of the Lok Sabha (Lower House).
Once the Lok Sabha passes the Budget, the Rajya Sabha can only discuss it but cannot amend or reject it.
No Power to Modify the Budget
Limited Legislative Authority: One of the biggest constraints on Parliament’s role in budget-making is its inability to make direct modifications. MPs can raise concerns and propose changes, but they have no authority to alter expenditure or taxation proposals.
Comparison with Other Democracies: In countries like France and Sweden, legislators have the power to suggest alternative spending plans and reallocate resources. Indian MPs, however, lack such authority, limiting their role to discussion rather than decision-making.
Majority Rule in Budget Approval: Even within the Lok Sabha, opposition parties struggle to push for amendments. Since the ruling party usually holds a majority, the Budget is passed with little resistance, leaving minimal room for modifications.
Impact on Fiscal Oversight: This restriction weakens Parliament’s ability to influence financial policies effectively. As a result, the Budget remains largely an executive-driven exercise, with Parliament playing only a symbolic role in its approval.
Which global models of legislative Budget scrutiny can India learn from to enhance parliamentary engagement?
Country
Features
Example & Lessons for India
United States – Congressional Budget Office (CBO) for Independent Analysis
The U.S. Congressional Budget Office (CBO) provides independent, non-partisan economic and budgetary analysis to assist lawmakers in evaluating fiscal policies.
India could establish a Parliamentary Budget Office (PBO) for similar fiscal oversight.
United Kingdom – Strong Parliamentary Committee System
The UK’s House of Commons Treasury Committee scrutinizes budget proposals, questions government officials, and publishes reports on financial policy.
In 2021, the Treasury Committee analyzed the economic impact of the UK Budget and made recommendations for pandemic recovery, influencing fiscal decisions. India can strengthen its Parliamentary Committees to enhance budgetary oversight.
Germany – Pre-Budget Consultations for Legislative Input
The Bundestag (German Parliament) conducts structured pre-Budget discussions, allowing legislators to debate fiscal priorities before finalizing budgetary allocations.
Germany’s Medium-Term Financial Planning Framework ensures multi-year fiscal policies align with economic goals. India could introduce pre-Budget discussions to improve transparency and parliamentary engagement.
Necessary Reforms to Address the Structural Weaknesses
Need for Pre-Budget Discussions
Parliament should play a bigger role in shaping the Budget, not just approving it. A structured pre-Budget discussion, held in the monsoon session, would let MPs review the country’s financial health and set priorities. This process would also encourage better coordination among various parliamentary committees, leading to well-rounded economic planning.
How Do Pre-Budget Discussions Contribute to a More Transparent and Democratic Budget-Making Process?
Greater Legislative Involvement and Accountability Pre-Budget discussions provide parliamentarians with the opportunity to voice public concerns, debate fiscal priorities, and influence resource allocation before the Budget is finalized.Example: In Germany, the Bundestag conducts pre-budget debates, ensuring that legislative recommendations are considered before finalizing financial plans.
Improved Public Participation and Transparency Open discussions enhance public awareness and trust by making the Budget-making process more inclusive and participatory.Example: In South Africa, public consultations are held before the Budget, allowing citizens to provide input and ensuring that financial policies align with public needs.
Better Coordination Among Subject Committees Structured discussions enable parliamentary committees to collaborate effectively, leading to more informed scrutiny of sector-wise allocations.Example: In Sweden, parliamentary finance committees review preliminary budget proposals, allowing for sector-specific recommendations before the final Budget is tabled.
Setting Up a Parliamentary Budget Office (PBO)
Unlike countries like the U.S., Canada, and the U.K., India has no independent body that provides non-partisan budgetary analysis to MPs. A PBO would fill this gap by offering expert research, economic forecasts, and data-driven insights. It would help parliamentarians understand spending patterns, revenue estimates, and fiscal policies without relying solely on government briefings.
Restoring Parliament’s Authority Over the Budget
Right now, Parliament’s role in budget-making is largely ceremonial, which weakens democracy. By introducing pre-Budget discussions and an independent PBO, India’s elected representatives could actively shape financial policies rather than just approving them. These changes are not just technical fixes—they are essential for making budget decisions more transparent, fair, and representative of public needs.
Conclusion
A truly democratic budget isn’t just about how efficiently the government plans and spends money—it’s about ensuring that Parliament plays an active role in shaping and scrutinizing those decisions.
Right now, India’s system sidelines Parliament, reducing its influence over the Budget. This needs to change so that there’s more balance and accountability in how public money is managed.
One way to fix this is by holding proper pre-Budget discussions and setting up a Parliamentary Budget Office (PBO)—a dedicated team that provides MPs with independent research on economic matters. This would help Parliament contribute meaningfully to budget-making, making the process more transparent, democratic, and effective.
If Parliament reclaims its rightful role in public finance, it won’t just strengthen economic oversight—it will also reinforce its position as the guardian of India’s democracy and financial integrity.
BACK2BASICS: Parliamentary Budget Office (PBO) – An Overview
What is the Parliamentary Budget Office (PBO)?
A Parliamentary Budget Office (PBO) is an independent, non-partisan institution that provides objective analysis of government budgets, fiscal policies, and economic forecasts. It assists lawmakers in making informed decisions, enhances legislative oversight, ensures transparency, and improves accountability in public finance management.
Global Examples
United States: The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) provides independent budgetary evaluations.
Canada: The Parliamentary Budget Officer (PBO) supports fiscal scrutiny and analysis.
Constitutional Status of PBO in India
The Indian Constitution does not explicitly mention a Parliamentary Budget Office (PBO). However, its establishment aligns with constitutional provisions related to financial oversight and legislative accountability:
Article 112 (Annual Financial Statement):
The Union Budget is presented before Parliament, which has the authority to scrutinize and approve it.
A PBO can strengthen this oversight by providing independent budgetary analysis.
Article 266 & 267 (Consolidated and Contingency Funds of India):
Parliament controls government expenditure, and a PBO can evaluate the fiscal implications of such spending.
Article 148-151 (Comptroller and Auditor General – CAG):
While CAG audits past expenditures, a PBO would provide forward-looking budgetary insights for better fiscal planning.
Article 105 (Powers and Privileges of Parliament):
Parliament has the right to seek financial information. A PBO could serve as an expert resource, offering unbiased fiscal analysis.
Conclusion
Establishing a Parliamentary Budget Office (PBO) in India would enhance transparency, accountability, and fiscal discipline in governance. It would equip legislators with independent budget analysis, improve financial oversight, and ensure evidence-based policymaking—making it a crucial step toward strengthening India’s parliamentary democracy.
April 8, 2025, marks the 10th anniversary of Pradhan Mantri MUDRA Yojana (PMMY), launched to fund micro and small enterprises.
About the Pradhan Mantri MUDRA Yojana (PMMY)
The PMMY, launched in 2015 is a Central Sector Scheme designed to provide financial support to non-corporate, non-farm small and micro-entrepreneurs previously excluded from the formal financial system.
MUDRA stands for Micro Units Development & Refinance Agency Ltd., a financial institution established to support the development and refinancing of micro-enterprises
It aims to foster grassroots entrepreneurship and remove barriers to accessing loans, especially for businesses that lack collateral.
Loan Categories:
Shishu: Loans up to ₹50,000 for new or small businesses.
Kishore: Loans ranging from ₹50,000 to ₹5 lakh for growing enterprises.
Tarun: Loans from ₹5 lakh to ₹10 lakh for more established businesses with greater capital needs.
TarunPlus: Loan limit up to ₹20 lakh for more established and larger businesses (since July 2024).
Key Features:
Collateral-Free Loans: PMMY loans do not require any collateral, making them accessible to those without assets.
Member Lending Institutions (MLIs): These include Public Sector Banks, Private Sector Banks, Regional Rural Banks, Micro Finance Institutions (MFIs), Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs), and Small Finance Banks (SFBs).
Credit Guarantee: Loans are backed by the Credit Guarantee Fund for Micro Units (CGFMU), which was established in 2015 to provide security to financial institutions offering loans under PMMY.
MUDRA Card: A MUDRA card is issued to manage the working capital portion of the loan, providing convenience to the borrower.
MUDRA 2.0:
MUDRA 2.0 (launched in Union Budget 2024) is an upgraded version of the original PMMY, designed to extend its outreach, particularly in rural and semi-urban areas.
This version introduces additional services such as financial literacy programs, business mentorship, and comprehensive business support, aiming to improve the overall impact of the scheme.
Enhanced Credit Guarantee Scheme (ECGS) is a new feature introduced to encourage more lending to small and microenterprises by reducing the risk for financial institutions.
Successes of PMMY:
Massive Loan Disbursement: Over ₹32.61 lakh crore disbursed through 52 crore loans, benefitting millions.
Inclusivity: 69% of loans are held by women, 51% by SC/ST and OBC entrepreneurs.
Job Creation: Promoted self-employment and business growth in rural and semi-urban areas.
MSME Credit Growth: Lending increased from ₹8.51 lakh crore in FY14 to ₹27.25 lakh crore in FY24.
International Recognition: Praised by IMF for expanding financial access, especially for women-led businesses.
Challenges:
Increase in NPAs: Rising defaults due to lack of collateral.
Disbursement Delays: Some banks face challenges in meeting loan targets.
Fraud Risk: Collateral-free loans are susceptible to misuse and fraud.
Larger Loan Limits: Higher limits under TarunPlus raise default risks for banks.
Default Risk: Some borrowers exploit the system through “evergreening” tactics.
[UPSC 2016] Pradhan Mantri MUDRA Yojana is aimed at
(a) bringing small entrepreneurs into the formal financial system.
(b) providing loans to poor farmers for cultivating particular crops.
(c) providing pensions to old and destitute persons.
(d) funding the voluntary organizations involved in the promotion of skill development and employment generation.
The Ministry of Women and Child Development has informed that 1,761 Anganwadi-cum-Creches are operational across the country under the Palna Scheme.
About the Palna Scheme
Launched to address childcare needs for working mothers, the Palna Scheme provides day-care facilities for children aged 6 months to 6 years.
In 2022, the National Creche Scheme was reorganized and renamed Palna Scheme under the Samarthya sub-scheme of Mission Shakti.
It is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme, with a 60:40 funding ratio between the Centre and State/UT Governments (90:10 for North-Eastern and Special Category States). UTs without legislature receive 100% funding.
Target Audience: Provides services for all mothers (irrespective of their employment status), offering a safe, hygienic, and supportive environment for children.
Creche Services: Includes day-care, early stimulation, preschool education, nutrition, health check-ups, and immunization support.
Other Creche Schemes:
Standalone Creches: Independent creches are providing care for children aged 6 months to 6 years. They include provisions for one Creche Worker and one Creche Helper. Services include sleeping arrangements, health monitoring, and education.
Anganwadi-cum-Creches (AWCC): A key component of Palna Scheme, these creches combine Anganwadi services with daycare for working mothers.
Staffing: Includes an Anganwadi Worker, Helper, and Creche Worker and Helper.
Target: Establish 17,000 new AWCCs by 2024-25, with 11,395 already approved as of March 2025.
Objective: To provide childcare in rural and semi-urban areas, ensuring last-mile delivery.
Honorarium: ₹6,500 for Creche Workers in standalone crèches and ₹5,500 for AWCC Workers.
About Mission Shakti
Mission Shakti is the Ministry of Women and Child Development’s flagship scheme, designed to strengthen women’s safety, security, and empowerment in India.
The scheme supports women-led development by addressing issues affecting women across their life-cycle.
Components:
Sambal: Focuses on women’s safety, with initiatives like the One Stop Centre (OSC), Women Helpline (WHL), and Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP).
Samarthya: Empowering women through sub-schemes like Ujjwala, Swadhar Greh, and the Palna Scheme. It integrates support for childcare and maternal health.
Gap Funding for Economic Empowerment: A new initiative to support financial gaps in women’s enterprises.
[UPSC 2019] With reference to the Maternity Benefit Amendment Act, 2017, consider the following statements:
1. Pregnant women are entitled for three months pre-delivery and three months post-delivery paid leave
2. This act applies to all organisations with 20 or more employees
3. It has made it mandatory for every organisation with 50 or more employees to have a crèche.
Which of the given statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
The Technology and Innovation Report, 2025 was recently issued by United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD).
About the Technology and Innovation Report
The report is released by the UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD).
It addresses critical issues related to science, technology, and innovation, with a particular focus on developing countries. The report emphasizes policy-relevant analysis and conclusions.
The theme for the 2025 edition is “Inclusive Artificial Intelligence for Development.”
Key Highlights of the Report:
Global Highlights:
Developed countries lead in technology preparedness, but nations like China, India, and Brazil outperform their income levels.
AI market projected to reach USD 4.8 trillionby 2033, fuelling global digital transformation.
100 companies, mostly in the U.S. and China, account for 40% of global corporate R&D spending.
AI will affect 40% of jobs globally, raising concerns over automation and job displacement.
U.S. leads in AI investment with USD 67 billion, followed by China (USD 7.8 billion) and India (USD 1.4 billion).
AI Governance Gap: 118 countries, mainly from the Global South, are absent from global AI governance discussions.
Indian Prospects:
India ranks 36th in the Readiness for Frontier Technologies Index in 2024, up from 48th in 2022. It ranks 10th globally with USD 1.4 billion in AI investments.
India has a talent pool of 13 million AI developers, contributing significantly to open-source platforms like GitHub.
The India AI Mission (2024) focuses on AI innovation through collaborations with the private sector and academia.
India leads in nanotechnology and has AI excellence centres like IIT Hyderabad and IIT Kharagpur.
[UPSC 2019] The Global Competitiveness Report is published by the:
(a) International Monetary Fund (b) United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (c) World Economic Forum (d) World bank
A study from Macquarie University, Australia, suggests that plate tectonics may have started earlier than previously thought, with signs of it possibly existing in the Hadean protocrust even before the plates began to move.
What is Hadean Protocrust?
The Hadean protocrust is the Earth’s first crust, formed within the first 200 million years of the planet’s creation.
During this time, the surface was mostly molten and constantly hit by space rocks, making it very hot and unstable.
Over time, parts of the molten surface began to cool and solidify, creating the first crust.
Back2Basics: Hadean Aeon
The Hadean Aeon is the earliest geological eon in Earth’s history, lasting from about 4.6 billion to 4 billion years ago.
The surface was incredibly hot and volcanic activity was widespread, often described as “hellish.”
It was followed by the Archean Eon (about 4 billion to 2.5 billion years ago), characterized by the formation of Earth’s first stable crust, the beginning of plate tectonics, and the earliest known forms of life.
As the surface cooled, the thick parts of the crust formed the first continents, which moved on the hot, semi-fluid layer beneath them called the asthenosphere.
Key Findings of the Recent Study:
The researchers found that the chemical signatures linked to plate tectonics might have appeared earlier, even when the Earth’s crust was still forming in the Hadean protocrust.
This discovery suggests that early movements of the Earth’s crust, similar to plate tectonics, could have happened before plates began to move as we know them today.
The study used models and experiments to support these ideas, but further research is needed to confirm these findings.
[UPSC 2013] Which of the following are responsible for bringing dynamic changes on the surface of the earth?
1. Electromagnetic radiation 2. Geothermal energy 3. Gravitational force 4. Plate movements 5. Rotation of the earth 6. Revolution of the earth
Which of the above are responsible for bringing dynamic changes on the surface of the earth?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 2, 4 and 6 only (d) 2 and 4 only
