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  • REGIONALISM

    REGIONALISM

    PYQ

    1. Growing feelings of regionalism are an important factor in the generation of demand for a separate state. Discuss. (2013)   

    2. What is the basis of regionalism? Is it that the unequal distribution of benefits of development on a regional basis eventually promotes regionalism? Substantiate your answer. (2016)   

    3. Has the formation of linguistic States strengthened the cause of Indian Unity? (2016)     

    4. In the context of diversity of India, can it be said that the regions form cultural units rather than the States? Give reasons with examples for your viewpoint. (2017)      

    5. Discuss whether formation of new states in recent times is beneficial or not for the economy of India. (2018) 

    6. Do you agree that regionalism in India appears to be a consequence of rising cultural assertiveness? Argue. (2020)

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    Introduction to Regionalism

    Definition

    Region is generally defined as “a homogeneous area with physical and cultural characteristics distinct from those of neighbouring areas”. Region provides the basis for the emergence of regional identity. It results in loyalty towards the region and ultimately takes the shape and form of regionalism. 

    The term regionalism has two connotations:

    1. In a negative sense, it is excessive attachment to one’s region in preference to country or state. It can threaten nation-building efforts such as the demand for Khalistan in Punjab which is giving rise to terrorism and violence within and outside Punjab. As a process it plays a role within the nation as well as outside it i.e. at the international level.
    2. In a positive sense, it means people’s love for their region, culture, language etc., with a view to maintain their independent identity. Positive regionalism encourages people to develop a sense of brotherhood and commonness on the basis of common language, religion or historical background. Ex: Creation of state of Jharkhand.

    What is not regionalism

    1. Local patriotism and loyalty to a locality or region or state and its language and culture do not constitute regionalism nor are they disruptive to the nation. They are quite consistent with national patriotism and loyalty to the nation.
    2. To have pride in one’s region or state is also not regionalism. A person can be conscious of his or her distinct regional identity of being a Tamil or a Punjabi, a Bengali or a Gujarati without being any the less proud of being an Indian, or being hostile to people from other regions.
    3. Aspiring to or making special efforts to develop one’s state or region or to remove poverty and implement social justice there, is not to be branded as regionalism. In fact, a certain inter-regional rivalry around the achievement of such positive goals would be quite healthy, in fact we have too little of it.
    4. Defending the federal features of the constitution is also not to be seen as regionalism. The demand for a separate state within the Indian Union or for an autonomous region within an existing state, or for devolution of power below the state level is also not regionalist.

    Historical Context of Regionalism in India

    1. Pre- independence: The politics of regionalism started with the implementation of constitutional reforms under Government of India Acts of 1909, 1919, and 1935. The establishment and role of the Justice Party in Chennai, in pre- independence period are examples of emerging regionalism in India.
    2. Dravidian movement: It was also known as self-respect movement and it initially focused on empowering Dalits, non- Brahmins, and poor people. Later it stood against the imposition of Hindi as the sole official language in non-Hindi speaking areas. But it was the demand of carving out their own Dravida Nadu, which made it a secessionist movement. The movement, however, declined and today the movement has given birth to several prominent regional parties after many splits and factionalism.
    3. Linguistic reorganisation of states: In the 1950s and 1960s, intense ethnic mass mobilisation, with a violent character, was the main force for creation of states on linguistic basis. Started with the Potti Sriramulu movement in AP and spread to all parts of the country. Culminated in formation of SRC and linguistic division of States.
    4. North-east: In 1970s and 1980s, the main focus of reorganisation was India’s North-east. The basis of reorganisation was tribal insurgency for separation and statehood. North-eastern States Reorganisation Act, 1971 upgraded the Union Territories of Manipur, Tripura and Meghalaya to full statehood, and Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh (then tribal districts) to Union Territories.
    5. Khalistan movement: It was during the 1980s that Khalistan movement with its aim to create a Sikh homeland cropped up in the Punjab. Thus this movement falls more in the category of a separatist movement. Apart from this, there have been several other secessionist movements namely, Jammu and Kashmir, Manipur, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, etc.
    6. Creation of new States in 2000: In the creation of three new states in 2000, namely Chhattisgarh, Uttaranchal and Jharkhand, language did not play a prominent role. Rather, a combination of ethnicity based on tribal identity, language, regional deprivation and ecology provided the basis for intense regionalism resulting in statehood.
    7. Telangana movement: In the years after the formation of Andhra Pradesh state, people of Telangana expressed dissatisfaction over how the agreements and guarantees were implemented. Discontent with the 1956 Gentleman’s agreement intensified in January 1969, when the guarantees that had been agreed on were supposed to lapse. It led to creation of Telangana in 2008.

    Constitutional Provisions

    1. The 73rd and 74th amendment acts addressed the regional aspiration by devolving power and resources to be used as per regional needs.
    2. The regions under 5th and 6th Schedule enjoy certain autonomy which give them scope to maintain their own culture and develop according to their own need.
    3. The provision of PESA Act, 1996 is a step towards reconciling with the regional aspirations.
    4. Art. 371 has special provisions helpful in addressing concerns of some states.

    Factors Contributing to Regionalism

    1. Geographical: After independence, people often associated their regional identity with specific geographical boundaries. The integration of Princely States led to the merger of smaller states into larger new states, causing a conflict of loyalties among citizens. Ex-The integration of Hyderabad State into Andhra Pradesh in 1956 led to prolonged agitation and eventual creation of Telangana in 2014.
    2. Historical Factors: History supported regionalism with cultural heritage, folklore, myths and symbolism. The most striking example is that of Dravida Kazhagam (DK) and the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) in Tamil Nadu and Shiv Sena in Maharashtra and Telugu Desam (TDP) in Andhra Pradesh.
    3. Cultural and Linguistic Diversity : Language is a crucial marker of group identity, expressing the shared life, thoughts, and values of a community. It unites people and motivates collective efforts toward a common future. Ex: The formation of linguistic states in India, such as Andhra Pradesh for Telugu speakers in 1953, demonstrated how language can unify people and drive regional development.
    4. Caste and religion: Tamil regionalism gained ground as a result of non-Brahmin movement. Non-Brahmin castes of Tamil speaking region had been able to provide a powerful united thrust against Brahmins 
    5. Economic Disparities: it is the crux of regional politics. The resources are limited while the demand for resources for the development of various regions is unlimited. Unequal Distribution of Developmental Benefits(Economic Marginalisation) have led to regional imbalances and wide economic disparities. This is the reason why movements of separate Uttarakhand state in the hill districts of UP, a Jharkhand state carved out of parts of Bihar and the demand of the state of Bodoland comprising a part of Assam are taking place.
    6. Political Aspirations: Politics as such does not create regionalism. It only accentuates regionalism. Ex: Sons of soil movement in Maharashtra. Regional political parties like TDP (Andhra Pradesh), DMK (Tamil Nadu), Akali Dal (Punjab) have been surviving because of regional sentiments.

    Types of Regionalism

    1. Supra-State Regionalism: Supra-state regionalism involves shared interests among people residing in multiple states, working towards promoting regional autonomy and local agendas. It suggests that a larger state with common interests has higher chances of success than smaller states. E.g. North Eastern states in India.
    2. Inter-State Regionalism: Inter-state regionalism creates divisions among two or more states, often due to territorial and identity-related factors. It can undermine the interests of certain groups within the states involved.E.g. Disputes between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu over the distribution of Kaveri water.
    3. Intra-State Regionalism: Intra-state regionalism emerges when a specific region or state seeks autonomy, self-identity, and self-reliance. It can be seen as a positive form of regionalism as it promotes self-dependence for the region. E.g. Saurashtra in Gujarat, East U.P. in Uttar Pradesh, Vidarbha in Maharashtra etc.

    Regional aspirations in the NorthEast

    1. Demands For Autonomy:
      • At independence the entire region except Manipur and Tripura comprised the State of Assam. Demands for political autonomy arose when non-Assamese felt that the Assam government was imposing Assamese language on them.
      • Even post completion of reorganization of NE in 1972, demands for autonomy didn’t end. In Assam, communities like Bodos, Karbis and Dimasas demanded separate States. Karbis and Dimasas have been granted autonomy under District Councils while Bodos were granted Autonomous Council within constitutional provisions.
    2. Secessionist movements
      • Assam: The United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA) is a separatist outfit operating in Assam. It seeks to establish a sovereign Assam with an armed struggle.
      • Nagaland: Led by Phizo, a section of Nagas declared independence from India in 1951. The problem in Nagaland still continues.
      • Mizoram: After independence a movement for secession in Mizo hills gained popular support. Two decades of insurgency led by Mizo National Front (MNF) ended after a peace agreement in 1986.
    3. Movements against outsiders
      • Large scale migration into the north-east gave rise to a special kind of problem that pitted ‘local’ communities against people who were seen as ‘outsiders’ or migrants. These latecomers are seen as encroachers on scarce resources.
      • The Assam Movement from 1979 to 1985 led by All Assam Students’ Union (AASU) is the best example of such movements against ‘outsiders’. Assamese suspected that there were huge numbers of illegal Bengali Muslim settlers from Bangladesh.
      • Hostility of local population to Chakma refugees in Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh.
      • Demands for the inner line permit system (ILPS) and the associated violence in Manipur is another example of movement against outsiders.
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    Impact of Regionalism

    Positive Impacts of Regionalism

    1. Decentralised Governance due to creation of Smaller States. Eg: The creation of smaller states like Telangana and Uttarakhand required the establishment of new administrative structures to govern these regions effectively.
    2. Emergence of New Regional Political Parties: The rise of new regional political parties, such as the Telugu Desam Party (TDP), driven by regionalism, advocating for separate regions or states.
    3. Focus on Specific Regional Problems: The formation of regional parties provides an opportunity to address and prioritise region-specific issues and challenges. Eg: The Shiv Sena in Maharashtra emerged to address the concerns of Marathi-speaking people, particularly related to job opportunities and cultural preservation.
    4. Healthy Competition among the states: Regionalism often encourages a sense of competition for growth among different states.
    5. Cultural Expression: celebration and preservation of distinct cultural traditions, languages, and practices, enriching the national tapestry. Eg: Festivals like Durga Puja in West Bengal, Pongal in Tamil Nadu, and Baisakhi in Punjab.
    6. Linguistic Diversity: India’s linguistic variety is a testament to its regional diversity, with each state often having its own official language and literary heritage. Eg: States like Karnataka, Maharashtra, and West Bengal promote Kannada, Marathi, and Bengali languages, respectively.
    7. Economic Development as states prioritize industries and policies that align with their unique resources and needs. Eg: Gujarat’s focus on industrialization and Maharashtra’s emphasis on financial services reflect regional economic strategies.

    Negative Impacts of Regionalism

    1. Undermining National Unity: Regionalism can undermine national integration, as loyalty and allegiance to a specific region may overshadow loyalty to the nation. E.g.Secessionist Movements (Demand for greater Nagaland).
    2. Weakening of National Institutions: It can weaken national institutions and governance structures potentially leading to challenges in effective governance and decision-making.
    3. Secessionist Movements: Extreme forms of regionalism can lead to demands for autonomy or secession, threatening the integrity of the nation. Eg: The Khalistan movement in Punjab and separatist demands in Jammu and Kashmir.
    4. Inter-State Conflicts: Regionalism can lead to disputes between states over resources, boundaries, and political dominance. Eg: The Cauvery water dispute between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
    5. Political Fragmentation: The coalition government led by the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) often had to balance regional party interests. Eg- TMC’s stand on Teesta Water Dispute with Bangladesh
    6. Economic Disparities: Regionalism can exacerbate economic inequalities between states, with more developed regions advancing faster than less developed ones. Eg: The economic gap between states like Maharashtra and BIMARU states.
    7. Political Fragmentation: Rise of regional parties hasa led to political instability and hinderd national policy-making. Eg: UPA government often faced challenges in balancing regional demands with national interests.
    8. Bargaining Federalism: Regional parties sometimes leverage their position to extract concessions from the central government, leading to fragmented policy decisions. 
    9. Funding Imbalances: Disparities in resource allocation and dependency on central transfers lead to financial instability in states. Eg- Kerala’s case in SC against centre on Net Ceiling Limit
    10. Resource Allocation Conflicts: Conflicts over resources like water and boundaries persist, challenging regional harmony. Eg: Ongoing Cauvery water dispute between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
    11. Cultural and Linguistic Tensions: Recognition of regional identities sometimes leads to exclusionary practices and tensions. Eg: Language-based movements marginalize non-native speakers in states like Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu etc.
    12. Effect on International Relations, evident in issues like Tamil Nadu’s concerns with Sri Lanka and West Bengal’s dispute with Bangladesh over the sharing of Teesta River water.

    Is Regionalism a Threat to National Integration?

    1. Coexistence and Development: Regionalism and national integration can coexist, emphasising development.
    2. Federal and Democratic System: A federal and democratic political system reconciles regionalism and national integration.
    3. Preserving National Solidarity: Regionalism, when managed well, does not disrupt national solidarity.
    4. Strengthening Federalism: Regionalism enhances federalism through equal regional partnership.
    5. Decentralization of Power: Regionalism reduces centralization, empowering states.
    6. Inevitability in a Diverse Nation: Regionalism is natural and inevitable in diverse countries like India.
    7. Fundamental to Federalism: Regionalism is foundational to federalism, respecting regional identities.

    Government Efforts to promote National Integrity

    1. North-Eastern Council (NEC): It was set up in 1971 to provide a forum for inter-state coordination, regional planning and integrated development of the region to avoid intra-regional disparities.
    2. Schemes to promote Nationalism: Schemes like “Ek Bharat-Shreshtha Bharat” have been launched to promote the country’s cultural diversity and increase inhabitants’ feelings of national togetherness.
    3. State Reorganisation Act of 1956: Zonal councils to promote the interest of different geographic zones.
    4. Federal Institution:
      • New institutional structures like NITI Aayog have been established to ensure federal equilibrium.
      • Interstate Council: It was established to make the Interstate Council Secretariat a thriving institution that supports coordination and cooperation between the Centre and States in India.
      • GST Council: Promote financial federalism and take all stakeholders on board.

    Way Forward:

    1. Targeted Investments: Prioritize equitable development through targeted policies and investments in underdeveloped regions. Eg: Implementing region-specific development programs and ensuring effective utilization of allocated funds.
    2. Strengthening Federalism: Foster cooperative federalism by enhancing collaboration between central and state governments on regional issues. Eg: Regular and effective use of platforms like the Inter-State Council and NITI Aayog.
    3. Resolving Resource Conflicts: Establish impartial mechanisms to mediate and resolve inter-state resource disputes. Eg: Strengthening the role of tribunals and promoting water-sharing agreements.
    4. Promoting Inclusive Identity: Encourage an inclusive national identity that respects and integrates regional diversities. Eg: Educational and cultural programs that highlight the unity in diversity of India’s heritage.
    5. Sustainable Development: Focus on sustainable and environmentally friendly development to ensure long-term regional prosperity. Eg: Promoting green energy projects and sustainable agricultural practices in regional policies.
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  • [23rd November 2024] The Hindu Op-ed: Understanding the changing face of extremist violence

    PYQ Relevance:

    Q) Naxalism is a social, economic and developmental issue manifesting as a violent internal security threat. In this context, discuss the emerging issues and suggest a multilayered strategy to tackle the menace of Naxalism. (UPSC CSE 2022)

    Mentor’s Comment:  UPSC Mains have always focused on ‘Left Wing Extremism’ (2023), ‘Growth of Naxalism, and Radicalization’ (2022 and 2024).

    The SATP report notes an increase in Maoist activities across 12 states, highlighting a rise from 10 states in 2022. Despite claims of declining violence due to the National Policy and Action Plan (NPAP), challenges remain.

    But Why? What is the root cause?

    Today’s editorial talks about the significance of vigilance and adaptability in combating extremist violence. This content can be used for ‘Rising Radicalization and Terrorism in India’.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    At the end of COP 29 in Baku (Azerbaijan), India will push for ambitious climate mitigation financing from developed nations. At the same time, India is at a critical juncture in its environmental and public health journey.

    What are the key observations from the early post-independence history?

    • The India-Pak partition in 1947 resulted in one of the largest mass migrations (14 to 18 million people displaced) that led to widespread communal violence, resulting in approximately one million deaths across religious communities. This continues to affect India-Pakistan relations even today.
    • Further, under the leadership of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, the government employed a combination of negotiations and military action to integrate these states into the Indian Union. For example, Hyderabad through Operation Polo and Junagadh’s accession following a plebiscite.
    • The new Indian government emphasized secularism as a foundational principle, and the Constitution adopted a framework for democracy and civil rights while promoting equality among all citizens. The practice of untouchability was abolished, and reservations were implemented for marginalized communities.
    o But in the immediate years, agricultural productivity was low, exacerbated by droughts and inadequate infrastructure.
    o The government recognized the need for economic reforms to uplift the agrarian sector and improve living conditions.
    • This period (1950s-1960s) also witnessed the emergence of political movements addressing regional aspirations and demands for statehood, such as the formation of Andhra Pradesh following widespread protests after the death of Potti Sriramulu during a hunger strike.

    How has the nature of extremist violence evolved in the digital age?

    • Increased Accessibility and Propagation: The internet has made extremist content more accessible than ever before. Individuals can easily find and engage with violent extremist materials online, which contributes to normalization and desensitization to radical ideas.
      • Social media platforms have become critical tools for extremists to disseminate their messages and recruit new members.
      • Research shows that social media played a role in the radicalization processes of nearly 90% of extremists in certain datasets between 2005 and 2016. It allows individuals to radicalize without physical contact, often leading to what is termed “lone actor terrorism”. 
    • Use of Disinformation Tactics: Extremists have increasingly created echo chambers where their ideologies are reinforced without challenge. Right-wing extremists, in particular, have been noted to benefit from such tactics more than other groups, utilizing disinformation campaigns to further their agendas.
    • Role of Anonymity and Encryption: Encrypted messaging apps and decentralized platforms enable them to communicate securely, share resources, and organize activities without attracting attention from law enforcement. This shift has made it more challenging for authorities to monitor and counteract.
    • Gaming Platforms: Emerging trends show that gaming platforms are being leveraged by extremists as new venues for recruitment and radicalization. These environments allow for interaction with potential recruits in less scrutinized settings, where extremist ideologies can be presented in a more palatable manner.

    What are the reasons behind the rise of new forms of extremist violence?

    • Socio-Political Factors: Ongoing geopolitical issues and perceived injustices within the country and the society, fuel extremist sentiments. Economic disparities and social inequalities drive individuals towards extremist ideologies.
    • Recruitment and Exploitation: Extremist groups generally prefer these isolated individuals, particularly children and youth, for recruitment.
    • Hybridization of Extremist Ideologies: Individuals combine various ideologies and conspiracy theories, creating complex motivations for violence. Their narratives are often tailored to personal experiences and grievances faced by the Indian society.
    • Covert Operations: Digital Encryption allows extremists to communicate and organize without detection. For Example, increased incidents of individuals committing violence independently, often using online resources for planning.

    What strategies can be implemented to effectively counteract extremist violence?

    • Community Engagement and Empowerment: Engage local communities through initiatives that foster trust between law enforcement and community members. Ensure that community engagement efforts are broad-based and inclusive, addressing all forms of ideologically motivated violence.
    • Education and Awareness Programs: Implement educational initiatives that promote respect for diversity, human rights, and critical thinking skills among youth. This can help counteract extremist narratives and reduce susceptibility to radicalization.
    • Countering Online Radicalization by PPP: The government can collaborate with technology companies to develop tools that can help identify and counter extremist content online while respecting privacy rights.
    • Socio-Economic Development: Focus on socio-economic development by offering effective alternatives to violence for at-risk groups. This includes enhancing participatory decision-making processes and strengthening local governance to address the root causes of discontent that can lead to radicalization.

    https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/understanding-the-changing-face-of-extremist-violence/article68899358.ece

  • What is Global Alliance Against Hunger and Poverty, launched at Brazil G20?

    Why in the News?

    The recent G20 Leaders’ Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, featured the official launch of the Global Alliance Against Hunger and Poverty (referred to as “the Alliance”).

    What are the primary objectives of the Global Alliance?

    • Eradication of Hunger and Poverty: The Alliance aims to eliminate hunger and poverty by 2030, aligning with the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
    • Support for Vulnerable Populations: It focuses on providing targeted assistance to vulnerable groups through various initiatives, including cash transfers and school meal programs.
    • Resource Mobilization: The initiative emphasizes large-scale resource mobilisation to support its objectives, aiming to reach 500 million people through income distribution programs by 2030.

    Who are the key stakeholders involved in this initiative?

    • The Alliance has 148 founding members, including 82 countries such as India, Brazil, and Bangladesh.
    • It includes participation from 26 international organizations, such as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and UNICEF.
    • Nine financial institutions and 31 philanthropic foundations and non-governmental organizations are also involved in supporting the Alliance’s goals.

    How will Alliance function?

    • The Alliance serves as a platform for countries to share best practices and access technical expertise or financial support from other member nations.
    • It offers more than 50 evidence-based policy instruments that member countries can utilize to develop their national strategies against hunger and poverty.
    • Unlike traditional funding bodies, the Alliance does not have an exclusive fund but acts as a matchmaking entity connecting countries in need with donors and technical support providers. Its operational costs are estimated at $2-3 million annually, funded by member contributions.

    What challenges does the Global Alliance aim to address in combating hunger and poverty?

    • Impact of COVID-19: The pandemic has exacerbated issues of hunger and poverty, reversing progress made toward the SDGs. The Alliance aims to counteract these setbacks by fostering international cooperation.
    • Global Inequalities: It addresses deepening social, racial, and gender inequalities that have been intensified by recent global crises.
    • Food Insecurity Projections: Current trends suggest that without intervention, millions will continue to live in extreme poverty and hunger by 2030—double the target levels set in the SDGs. The Alliance seeks to reverse these projections through coordinated action.

    Conclusion: The Global Alliance Against Hunger and Poverty aligns with SDGs 1 (No Poverty) and SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) by mobilizing resources, fostering collaboration, and implementing targeted interventions to combat hunger, poverty, and inequalities, ensuring a sustainable and inclusive future.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Poverty and malnutrition create a vicious cycle, adversely affecting human capital formation. What steps can be taken to break the cycle? (UPSC IAS/2024)

  • Democratising AI needs a radically different approach

    Why in the News?

    Policymakers globally are addressing Big Tech’s dominance in AI by investing in sovereign cloud infrastructure, open data platforms, and supporting start-ups, yet these measures may inadvertently reinforce Big Tech’s control.

    How can we ensure that AI is implemented in a way that upholds democratic values?

    • It promotes Open Data Initiatives: While open data can enhance AI systems, it must be safeguarded against commercial capture by larger entities. Initiatives should focus on making data accessible and usable for smaller players without allowing Big Tech to monopolize it.
    • It invests in Public Compute Infrastructure: Establishing public computing resources can provide alternatives to private cloud services dominated by Big Tech. However, these resources must be competitive in terms of cost and functionality to be effective.
    • It fosters Smaller AI Models: Shifting focus from large-scale deep learning models to smaller, theory-driven AI models can democratize development. This approach emphasizes domain expertise and lived experiences over sheer data volume, which aligns better with democratic values.

    What role should public participation play?

    • Engagement in Policy Development: Involving diverse stakeholders, including community representatives and industry experts, can help create policies that reflect a broader range of interests and concerns regarding AI deployment.
    • Transparency and Accountability: Mechanisms should be established to ensure transparency in AI decision-making processes. Public oversight can help hold organizations accountable for their AI practices, particularly regarding data usage and algorithmic biases.
    • Community-Centric AI Solutions: Encouraging local communities to participate in the design and implementation of AI solutions can lead to more equitable outcomes. This involvement ensures that AI applications address specific community needs rather than serving corporate interests alone.

    What are the risks associated with technocratic governance?

    • Concentration of Power: The dominance of Big Tech can lead to a concentration of power where a few entities dictate the terms of AI development and deployment. This scenario risks sidelining smaller players and reducing diversity in innovation.
    • Surveillance and Privacy Concerns: The use of AI for surveillance by powerful corporations can threaten individual privacy rights. Policymakers must carefully consider the implications of deploying AI technologies that could exacerbate existing inequalities or infringe on civil liberties.
    • Erosion of Public Trust: If the public perceives that AI governance is primarily driven by technocratic elites without adequate input from citizens, trust in these systems may erode. This distrust can hinder the effective implementation of AI technologies that could otherwise benefit society.

    Way forward: 

    • Establish Inclusive AI Governance: Create multi-stakeholder frameworks involving governments, communities, and smaller players to ensure transparency, accountability, and equitable access to AI resources, safeguarding against monopolistic practices.
    • Prioritize Ethical, Small-Scale AI Development: Shift focus from large-scale deep learning models to theory-driven, domain-specific AI solutions that respect privacy, foster community involvement, and address localized needs, promoting democratic values in AI deployment.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q The emergence of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (Digital Revolution) hasinitiated e-Governance as an integral part of government”. Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2020)

  • Kaziranga National Park

    Kaziranga National Park

    Why in the News?

    A sub-adult female tiger from Kamakhya Reserve Forest in Assam strayed near Kaziranga National Park and was attacked by locals.

    All facts about Kaziranga National Park:

    Details
    About • Located in the Golaghat, Sonitpur, Biswanath, and Nagaon districts of Assam, India.
    • Spans 430 sq. km. (166 square miles).
    • Established as a reserve forest in 1905, declared as a National park in 1974, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1985.
    • Declared as a Tiger Reserve in 2006.
    Geographical Features • The park is crisscrossed by the Brahmaputra River along with numerous small bodies of water.
    • Dominated by tall elephant grass, marshland, and tropical moist broadleaf forests.
    • Terrain includes sandbars, beels (flood-formed lakes), and chapories (elevated areas).
    Flora and Fauna
    • Flora: Includes 4 main vegetation types: alluvial inundated grasslands, alluvial savanna woodlands, tropical moist mixed deciduous forests, and tropical semi-evergreen forests.
    •  Fauna: Home to 35 mammalian species(15 threatened), it also includes the world’s largest populations of Indian rhinoceros (2,613), wild water buffalo (1,666), swamp deer (468), elephants (1,940), gaur (1,300), and sambar (58).
      • Important bird area with 57 species of birds, including migratory species.
      • Rich biodiversity, including significant populations of chital, Indian muntjac, wild boar, and hog deer.

     

    PYQ:

    [2013] Consider the following pairs:

    National Park River flowing through the Park

    1. Corbett National Park : Ganga

    2. Kaziranga National Park : Manas

    3. Silent Valley National Park : Kaveri

    Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?

    (a) 1 and 2

    (b) 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3

    (d) None

  • International Cooperative Alliance (ICA)

    Why in the News?

    • India is set to host the International Cooperative Alliance (ICA) Global Cooperative Conference in Delhi this month.
      • It will mark the first time in the 130-year history of ICA that the ICA General Assembly and Global Cooperative Conference are being hosted in India.

    About the International Cooperative Alliance (ICA):

    Details
    About • Established in 1895 to unite, represent, and serve cooperatives globally.
    • Represents 315 cooperative federations and organizations from 107 countries.
    • Estimated to represent about 1 billion individuals worldwide across various sectors like agriculture, banking, fisheries, health, housing, insurance, and more.
    • It has held consultative status with the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) since 1946, making it the first NGO to receive this status.
    • Custodian of the internationally recognized definition, values, and principles of cooperatives. 
    Structure of ICA • Governing Board: A 20-member board responsible for overseeing activities.
    • General Assembly: Highest governing authority, with representatives from member organizations, convened at least annually.
    • ICA is divided into four regional organizations:

    1. ICA Asia-Pacific (New Delhi, India),
    2. ICA Africa (Nairobi, Kenya),
    3. Cooperatives Europe (Brussels, Belgium), and
    4. ICA Americas (San José, Costa Rica).

    • 8 sectoral organizations representing cooperatives in various sectors like agriculture, banking, fisheries, and more.
    • 5 thematic committees focused on cooperative development, economic sustainability, social responsibility, and advocacy.
    Powers and Functions of ICA • Represents cooperatives in international forums, particularly within the United Nations and other multilateral organizations.
    • Influences international policies related to social and economic development and sustainable cooperative businesses.
    • Promote and define cooperative identity globally, ensuring cooperatives adhere to internationally recognized principles.
    • Collects and publishes data about the cooperative sector via reports like the World Cooperative Monitor and ICA Global 300 index.

  • International Criminal Court (ICC)

    Why in the News?

    The International Criminal Court (ICC) has issued arrest warrant for Israeli PM Benjamin Netanyahu accusing them of war crimes and crimes against humanity.

    About the International Criminal Court (ICC)

    Details
    What is it? • First international permanent court to prosecute individuals for serious international crimes.
    • Established under the Rome Statute (1998, w.e.f 2002).
    • 124 countries are States Parties to the Rome Statute.• Headquarters: The Hague, Netherlands.
    Structural Mandate • Official languages: English, French, Arabic, Chinese, Russian, and Spanish.
    • Members: 124 States Parties to the Rome Statute; Palestine (2015) and Malaysia (2019) became the latest members.
    • Notable non-members: India, Israel, the US, Russia, Ukraine, and China.
    • Funding: By contributions from member states and voluntary contributions.
    • Enforcement: Relies on state cooperation for enforcement, as it does not have its own police force.
    Composition   • Judges: Consists of 18 judges elected by the Assembly of States Parties for a term of 9 years.
    • Prosecutor: Leads the Office of the Prosecutor and investigates crimes.
    • Additional Components: Includes the Trust Fund for Victims (2004), Detention Centre, and the Assembly of States Parties.
    Jurisdiction  Prosecutes 4 main crimes:    

    1. War Crimes: Violations of the laws of war.
    2. Crimes against Humanity: Acts like murder, enslavement, and torture.
    3. Genocide: Intent to destroy a national, ethnical, racial, or religious group.
    4. Crimes of Aggression: Unjustified military action against another state.

    • ICC can only prosecute crimes committed after the Rome Statute’s entry into force (July 1, 2002).

     

    PYQ:

    [2018] “Rule of Law Index” is released by which of the following?

    1. Amnesty International
    2. International Court of Justice
    3. The Office of UN Commissioner for Human Rights
    4. World Justice Project

  • In news: Ashtamudi Lake

    Ashtamudi Lake

    Why in the News?

    Several dead fish are floating on the banks of Ashtamudi Lake in Kerala due to illegal use of ‘thotta’ (explosives) and ‘nanchu’ (poisons) for fishing.

    About Ashtamudi Lake:

    Details
    About  • Brackish-water estuarine lake, located in Kerala, covering 5,700 hectares.
    • Designated as a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention in 2002.
    Geographical Features • Encompasses 8 channels (arms) connecting to the lake, giving it the name “Ashtamudi.” (gateway to the backwaters of Kerala)
    • Second largest lake in Kerala (first being the Vembanad Lake), drains into the sea via Neendakara estuary.
    • Kallada River is the main water source for the lake.
    • Historical significance as a major port city of Quilon, as recorded by Ibn Battuta.
    Flora and Fauna • Mangrove species: Avicennia officinalis, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Sonneratia caseolaris.
    • Endangered species: Syzygium travancoricum and Calamus rotang.
    • 57 species of avifauna, including 6 migratory species and 51 resident species.
    •  In 2014, the Clam Governing Council became the first Marine Stewardship Council certified fishery in India for their sustainable clam fishing.

     

    PYQ:

    [2018] Which one of the following is an artificial lake?

    (a) Kodaikanal (Tamil Nadu)

    (b) Kolleru (Andhra Pradesh)

    (c) Nainital (Uttarakhand)

    (d) Renuka (Himachal Pradesh)

  • [22nd November 2024] The Hindu Op-ed: India needs an environmental health regulatory agency

    PYQ Relevance:
    Q) “The most significant achievement of modern law in India is the constitutionalization of environmental problems by the Supreme Court.” Discuss this statement with the help of relevant case laws. (UPSC CSE 2022)

    Mentor’s Comment:  UPSC Mains has recently focused on Environmental Issues (2020) and regional Environmental Challenges (2023).

    According to the Emissions Gap Report 2024 from the United Nations Environment Programme, India has seen over 6% more greenhouse gas emissions than the previous year.

    Today at the end of COP 29 in Baku (Azerbaijan), India will push for ambitious climate mitigation financing from developed nations. These two examples show that India is at a critical juncture in its environmental and public health journey. 

    Today’s editorial talks about the challenges around the current environmental health governance in India. This content can be used for ‘Environmental regulations and challenges’.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    At the end of COP 29 in Baku (Azerbaijan), India will push for ambitious climate mitigation financing from developed nations. At the same time, India is at a critical juncture in its environmental and public health journey.

    What are the current gaps in India’s environmental health regulations?

    • Fragmented Regulatory Framework: Current environmental governance is divided among multiple ministries, such as the Ministryof Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) and the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW).
      • This fragmentation results in a disconnect between environmental monitoring and health impact assessments, leading to ineffective responses to pollution-related health issues.
    • Outdated Legislation: Many existing laws, such as the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, and the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, have not been updated to reflect current environmental challenges.
      • They do not adequately address modern pollution sources or incorporate contemporary scientific understanding of environmental health risks.
    • Insufficient Data Collection and Research: There is a lack of reliable, comprehensive data on the health impacts of environmental pollutants.
      • While organizations like the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) conduct important research, there is no centralized body to synthesize this data into actionable policies. This gap hampers effective regulation and public health interventions.
    • Inadequate Enforcement Mechanisms: Although laws exist to regulate pollution, enforcement remains weak due to bureaucratic inertia, lack of resources, and sometimes political influence.
      • Compliance with pollution control measures is often not monitored effectively, allowing violations to persist without consequences.
    • Exemptions in New Regulations: Recent proposals, such as the Remediation of Contaminated Sites Rules, 2024, have notable exemptions that exclude certain types of contaminated sites from regulation (e.g., radioactive sites, abandoned mines).
      • This can leave significant areas unaddressed in terms of cleanup and remediation efforts

    How would a dedicated environmental health regulatory agency improve public health outcomes?

    • Integrated Approach: The agency would combine environmental and public health oversight, ensuring that regulations address the interconnectedness of environmental factors and health outcomes.
    • Enhanced Regulation and Enforcement: It would enforce stricter regulations on pollutants and ensure compliance from industries, reducing harmful exposures to air and water quality issues.
    • Data Collection and Research: The agency would prioritize systematic data collection on environmental health impacts, leading to better-informed policies and timely interventions for pollution-related health issues.
    • Public Awareness and Education: By educating the public about environmental health risks, the agency would empower communities to advocate for cleaner environments and healthier living conditions.

    What international best practices can India adopt for an effective framework?

    • Implementation of EHS Guidelines: India can utilize the World Bank Group’s EHS Guidelines, which provide comprehensive standards for managing environmental health risks across various industries.
    • Framework for Environmental Public Health Functions: India can implement the EEPHF framework developed by the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), which outlines responsibilities for health actors and governance structures necessary for effective environmental health management.
    • Comprehensive Risk Management: Implementing a structured risk management framework similar to that outlined by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) would allow India to evaluate multiple contaminants and exposure pathways comprehensively.
    • Environmental Health Incident Management: India can adopt a coordinated incident management framework like the Australia’s system, which provides mechanisms for responding to environmental health incidents effectively. This includes preparedness measures, effective communication strategies, and collaboration across government sectors to minimize impacts on public health.

    Way Forward: To improve environmental health in India, there is a need for an integrated regulatory approach that updates laws, enhances enforcement, engages communities, and ensures comprehensive monitoring of pollutants.

  • COMMUNALISM

    COMMUNALISM

    PYQs

    [2018] ‘Communalism arises either due to power struggle or relative deprivation. Argue by giving suitable illustrations. 

    [2017] Distinguish between religiousness/religiosity and communalism giving one example of how the former has got transformed into the latter in independent India. (2017)         

    Communalism is an aggressive political ideology linked to religion. According to Bipan Chandra, communalism is a belief system that a group of people who practice a particular religion share similar social, political, and economic interests.

    Ram Ahuja defined communalism as a belief that is characterized by strong antagonism practiced by the members of one community against the people of another community.

    Communalism is about politics and not about religion. Although communalists are intensely involved with religion, there is no necessary relationship between personal faith and communalism. The key factor is the attitude towards those who believe in other kinds of identities, including other religion-based identities

    Quotes

    “Communalism is the negation of the spirit of religion. The communalist is a traitor to the cause of religion and to his own nation.” – Jawaharlal Nehru

    “The poison of communalism should not be allowed to spread. It is the duty of every Indian to ensure that communal harmony is maintained and that we do not let divisive forces tear our country apart.” – Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel

    “The idea of India, as a nation, should be inclusive, embracing all its diverse elements. Communalism is a scourge that undermines the very essence of our unity.” – Rabindranath Tagore

    “Communalism is fundamentally a form of sectarianism, which seeks to divide and polarize society. It thrives on fear and mistrust” – Amartya Sen

    “Communalism is a pathology of the collective mind. It turns legitimate concerns for cultural survival into paranoia and hatred.” – Ashis Nandy

    “Communalism is a manifestation of the failure of the state to protect the rights and identities

    Talk To UPSC Mentor

    Historical background

    1. Ancient India was united with no communal feelings, people were tolerant of other cultures and traditions. This can be seen in Ashoka’s Dhamma which focused on religious tolerance.
    2. In medieval history, it was Babur who for the first time used Jihad(religious war) on India to gain the support of his army, when he lost his kingdom in Fargana to his uncle.
    3. But, even in medieval India, few rulers were tolerant of other religions. Eg: establishment Din-i-ilahi and Ibadat Khana by Akbar.
    4. However, Rulers like Aurangzeb, known for their intolerance towards other religions, deepened communal differences in India by imposing taxes on non-Muslim practices, destroying temples, enforcing conversions, and killing Sikh gurus.
    5. Communalism in modern India is a 20th-century concept. It is a product of the divide-and-rule policy of the British
      • Partition of Bengal in 1905
      • Religious Revivalism in 1924: The Shuddhi and Sangathan movements among the Hindus and the Tabligh and Tanzim religious movement among the Muslims invoked religious revivalism.
      • Communal Violence (1923-30):  The violence began with the Moplah Rebellion which intensified hatred among the Hindus and Muslims in the Malabar region. The most serious riots happened at Saharanpur in connection with the Muharram festival.
      • Communal Award, 1932: To fuel communalism and appease various communities, the British provided separate representation for Muslims, Sikhs, Anglo-Indians, Indian Christians, Europeans, Landlords, the depressed classes, and commerce and industry.
    6. Post Independence
      • Partition of India, 1947 – The 1947 Partition led to mass displacement and violence, with millions migrating and widespread killings and rapes. Refugee rehabilitation became a significant challenge.
      • No major communal disturbances occurred until 1961 when the Jabalpur riots erupted due to economic competition between Hindu and Muslim bidi manufacturers.
      • Anti-Sikh Riots, 1984 – Following Prime Minister Indira Gandhi’s assassination by her Sikh bodyguards, anti-Sikh riots resulted in thousands of Sikh deaths and widespread violence.
      • Ethnic Cleansing of Kashmiri Pandits, 1989 – Extremist Islamic terrorism in Kashmir in 1989 led to the mass killing and exodus of Kashmiri Pandits, who became refugees in their own country.
      • Babri Masjid Demolition, 1992 – The 1992 demolition of the Babri Masjid by Hindu activists led to extensive riots and heightened Hindu-Muslim tensions.
      • Gujarat Riots, 2002 – A fire on the Sabarmati Express in 2002 ignited severe Hindu-Muslim violence in Gujarat, resulting in extensive loss of life and ongoing legal battles.
      • Assam Communal Violence, 2012 – In 2012, ethnic clashes between Bodos and Bengali-speaking Muslims in Assam led to significant violence and fatalities.
      • Muzaffarnagar Violence, 2013 – Ethnic clashes between Jats and Muslims in Muzaffarnagar in 2013, fueled by social media and eve-teasing incidents, resulted in substantial violence.
      • Delhi Riots, 2020 – In February 2020, communal violence over the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) led to over 50 deaths, hundreds of injuries, and widespread homelessness in Delhi.

    Stages of Communalism

    Bipan Chandra in “India’s Struggle for Freedom” has given 3 elements:

    1. Communal Consciousness: Described as “the first bedrock of communal ideology.” It is a belief that people from similar religious communities have common secular interests, such as political, economic, social, and cultural interests. Eg- formation of the Muslim League in 1906
    2. Liberal communalism:  The belief that people belonging to different religious communities do not share common secular interests, be they social, economic, cultural, or political. This belief leads to a perception of division and separateness among different religious communities. Eg- Hindu Mahasabha’s ideology in the early 20th century
    3. Extreme communalism:  The stage where relationships between different religious communities are seen as mutually incompatible, hostile, and antagonistic. This perception leads to open conflict and deep-seated enmity among communities. Eg- Partition of India in 1947
    Talk To UPSC Mentor

    Features of Communalism

    1. overrides everything else. Whether one is poor or rich, whatever one’s occupation, caste, or political beliefs, it is religion alone that counts.
    2. Belief in the Superiority of One’s Own Community in terms of culture, religion, and social values. This sense of superiority can lead to exclusionary practices and discrimination against other communities.
    3. Economic Competition – Communalism often frames economic disparities and competition as issues between different religious communities. Eg- the 1961 Jabalpur riots stemmed from an economic rivalry between Hindu and Muslim bidi manufacturers.
    4. Historical Grievances and perceived past injustices to justify current hostilities and conflicts. These narratives are used to rally communities against perceived enemies. Eg- The invocation of historical conflicts, such as the Mughal rule over India, to justify contemporary animosities between Hindus and Muslims.
    5. Communal Violence – Communalism often manifests in violent clashes between different religious communities, leading to loss of life, property, and social cohesion. Eg- The 2002 Gujarat riots.
    6. It propagates an intense dislike of other religions and stands for the elimination of other religions and their values. This Cultural and Religious Intolerance leads to opposition to interfaith interactions and exchanges. Eg- Resistance to interfaith marriages and social events as seen in various “Love Jihad” cases.
    7. Distrust of Other Groups – This distrust is often cultivated and perpetuated through propaganda, historical grievances, and socio-political narratives.
    8. Social Segregation – Communalism encourages communities’ physical and social segregation, reducing interaction and fostering a lack of understanding and empathy between groups. Eg- Segregated residential areas, schools, and workplaces can create echo chambers where communal prejudices are reinforced.
    9. Use of Religion for Political Mobilization – Political leaders and parties often use religious sentiments to mobilize support and consolidate power. This politicization of religion can intensify communal identities and lead to polarization.
    10. Propaganda and misinformation through media and social networks are common features of communalism. This can incite hatred and violence by spreading falsehoods about other communities.
    11. Institutional Bias – Communalism can infiltrate state and societal institutions, leading to biased practices and policies that discriminate against certain communities.
    Talk To UPSC Mentor

    Types of Communalism

    Sociologist T.K. Oomen has given 6 fold classification

    DimensionDescriptionExample
    AssimilationistSmall religious groups are integrated into larger ones.The integration of smaller Christian denominations into mainstream Protestantism.
    WelfaristFocus on the welfare and betterment of a specific community.JITO for the Jain community.
    RetreatistThe community advises members to either participate in or abstain from politics.Bahaism religion prohibits its members from political participation
    RetaliatoryOne community harms members of another in rivalry.The 2002 Gujarat riots
    SeparatistDemand for a distinct identity and separation from a larger group.demand for Greater Nagalim, Bodoland, etc.
    SecessionistA group demands to secede from a state or nation for a separate political identity.The demand for Khalistan, independent Tamil Eelam by the LTTE in Sri Lanka.

    Other Types of Communalism

    TypeDescriptionExample
    Political CommunalismUse of communal identities for political mobilization. This leads to political polarization and communal violence.Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha
    Economic CommunalismEconomic disparities are framed as communal issues. It exacerbates economic inequalities and tensionsSyed Ahmad Khan established Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College in 1875
    Recent examples of Twitter trend of banning Halal Meet
    Cultural CommunalismEmphasis on the cultural identity of a community. It manifests in cultural hegemony,, violence, and imposition of a dominant culture on others.Burka tradition in the Muslim community.
    Promotion of Hindi as a national language and the resistance by Tamil Nadu
    Social CommunalismCommunity-oriented social behavior and practices. It Reinforces social segregation and discrimination, hinders social integration, and perpetuates social inequality.Opposition to valentines Day and violence by groups such as Bajrang Dal in Megacities
    Religious CommunalismStrict adherence to religious practices and beliefs leads to segregation. Promotes religious intolerance, social exclusion, and undermines secularism.certain orthodox Jewish communities in Israel promote religious exclusivity
    Ethnic CommunalismFocus on ethnic identity and solidarity. This leads to ethnic violence, displacement, and genocideStrict adherence to religious practices and beliefs leads to segregation. Promotes religious intolerance, and social exclusion, and undermines secularism.
    Linguistic CommunalismEmphasis on linguistic identity and differences. It Causes linguistic chauvinism and hinders national integrationTamil language rights movement in Sri Lanka.
    Caste-Based CommunalismFocus on caste identity and hierarchy. It obstructs social mobility and undermines social cohesion.Jat agitation for OBC status.
    Talk To UPSC Mentor

    Factors aiding Communalism in India

    1. Historical Legacy
      • Colonial Policies: The British adopted a ‘Divide and Rule’ strategy, fostering divisions between Hindus and Muslims. This was evident in the partition of Bengal in 1905, which was based on religious lines.
      • Partition of India: The partition in 1947 led to large-scale violence and mass migrations, sowing seeds of distrust and hostility between communities. Over a million people were killed, and 15 million were displaced.
    2. Political Factors
      • Identity Politics – Strong identification with religion over national identity is misused by politicians to mobilize support. Eg- the demolition of the Babri Masjid in 1992 was used by some political groups to polarize voters.
      • Secularism Implementation: Weak enforcement of secular principles has allowed communal ideologies to flourish. The lack of strict action against hate speech by political leaders contributes to the problem.
    3. Economic Factors
      • Economic Disparities: Economic inequality exacerbates communal tensions. In regions with high poverty rates, such as Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, there are frequent communal clashes due to competition for resources.
      • Unemployment: High unemployment rates among youth, make them vulnerable to communal propaganda. Eg- the 2013 Muzaffarnagar riots had significant participation from unemployed youths.
    4. Social Factors
      • Caste and Religion: The overlap of caste and religious identities strengthens communal divisions. In many parts of India, such as Tamil Nadu, caste-based and religious tensions often intersect.
      • Cultural Practices: Practices like ‘ghar wapsi’ (reconversion to Hinduism) by some groups and issues like beef consumption, Hindi/Urdu imposition create friction between religious communities.
    5. Media and Communication
      • Sensationalism: Media often sensationalizes communal issues for TRPs, worsening tensions. During the Delhi riots of 2020, certain news channels were accused of biased reporting that incited further violence.
      • Social Media: Platforms like Facebook and WhatsApp are used to spread communal propaganda quickly. Fake news and inflammatory posts played a significant role in the 2018 Dhule mob lynching incident.
    6. Weak Governance and Law Enforcement
      • Inadequate Response: Often, there is a lack of timely action against communal violence. The slow response during the 2002 Gujarat riots 
      • Impunity: Perpetrators of communal violence often go unpunished, emboldening others. The 1984 anti-Sikh riots saw many culprits evading justice for decades.
    7. Religious Organizations – Organizations like SIMI promote radical ideologies that contribute to communal tensions. The activities of these groups often incite violence and hatred.
    8. Psychological Causes
      • Prejudices and Biases: Deep-rooted prejudices and stereotypes against other religious communities fuel communal tensions. Eg- global rise in Islamophobia post 9/11 attacks
      • Fear and Insecurity: Perceptions of threat and fear, fueled by communal propaganda and incidents, lead to the rise of communalism. Eg- Fear of Demographic Change was a major factor behind the 2012 Assam riots between Bodos and Muslims. 

    Theories on Communalism

    1. Ethnic Competition Theory (Horowitz, 1985) – communalism arises from competition between ethnic groups for limited resources, such as jobs, education, and political power.
    2. Primordialism (Clifford Geertz, 1963) – communalism is rooted in the ancient, deep-seated bonds of kinship, language, religion, and tradition. These bonds are seen as natural and immutable.
    3. Constructivism (Benedict Anderson, 1983) – communal identities are socially constructed through historical processes, colonial legacies, and political manipulation. These identities are flexible and can be reshaped by social and political changes.
    4. Instrumentalism (Paul Brass, 1991) – Instrumentalism views communalism as a tool used by political elites to mobilize support and gain power. Communal identities are seen as instrumental in achieving political goals.
    5. Modernization Theory (Karl Deutsch, 1961) – communalism arises as a reaction to the disruptions caused by modernization and social change. As traditional social structures break down, people seek security in communal identities.
    6. Relative Deprivation Theory (Ted Robert Gurr, 1970) -perceived discrepancies between expected and actual living standards fuel communalism. When a community feels deprived relative to others, it resorts to communalism as a form of protest.

    Consequences of Communalism

    Communal violence obstructs economic development, social progress, cultural assimilation, and political tolerance. 

    Political

    1. Political Polarization – Communalism can lead to increased political polarization, with political parties exploiting religious divisions to gain support, thereby undermining democratic processes and secularism.
    2. Undermining National Unity – People are guided by vested and narrow interests due to communalism, they tend to prioritize community interest over the national interest. Eg- Khalistan Movement

    Economic

    1. Hinders economic progress: According to the Global Peace Index (2022), India ranked 72nd, and the economic cost of violence is as much as 6% of GDP.
    2. Obstruction to Development – Frequent communal riots in Uttar Pradesh have diverted government resources towards maintaining law and order, away from development initiatives.
    3. Threatens demographic dividend: The flow of labor from productive activities is diverted to unproductive activities; this kills the vibrant demography in communal violence.

    Social

    1. Social Segregation – Communalism reinforces social divisions, leading to communities living in isolated enclaves with limited interaction, which perpetuates mistrust and hostility. Eg- In cities like Mumbai and Ahmedabad, distinct Hindu and Muslim neighborhoods have emerged, with minimal social interaction between the communities.
    2. Human Rights Violations – Communal conflicts often lead to gross human rights violations, including mass killings, sexual violence, forced displacement, and destruction of property. Eg- Bilkis Bano
    3. Displacement and Refugee Crises – Eg- the 1989 exodus of Kashmiri Pandits from the Kashmir Valley due to communal violence led to a large displaced population living in refugee camps in Jammu and other parts of India.
    4. Sow suspicion in society: Communalism sows the seeds of suspicion among the members of society which puts the community at a disadvantage. Eg- Muslims were denied medical treatment for being suspected as ‘Super spreaders’ during Covid-19.

    Cultural Erosion – Communalism can lead to the erosion of cultural heritage, as violence and segregation diminish the rich cultural exchanges that occur in a pluralistic society.

    Psychological Trauma – Individuals and communities affected by communal violence often suffer from long-term psychological trauma, including anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

    Talk To UPSC Mentor

    Steps to check the growth of Communalism

    1. Encouraging Interfaith Dialogue, cultural exchange programs, and educational initiatives to foster understanding and respect among different communities. Eg. the Inter-religious Council of Kenya, Interfaith councils in the US
    2. Community Policing such as the Jan Maithri Suraksha project of Kerala.
    3. Addressing Socio-Economic Inequalities to reduce competition and tensions between communities. (Sachar Committee and Ranganath Mishra Commission)
    4. Holding Political Leaders Accountable: Strictly enforcing the Model Code of Conduct by the Election Commission of India to prevent communal rhetoric during elections.
    5. Media Monitoring: strict implementation of the Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021, to regulate online content. 
    6. Implementing Legal Measures: Enforce strict laws against hate speech and communal violence under sections 153A and 295A of the Indian Penal Code.
    7. Educational Reforms – Amartya Sen emphasizes the role of education in promoting a sense of shared identity and reducing communal prejudices. 
    8. Civil Society Engagement – Engagement with NGOs like the Citizens for Justice and Peace in promoting communal harmony and legal support for victims of communal violence.
    9. Grassroots conflict Resolution Mechanisms like Peace Committees in Maharashtra that involve community leaders in resolving local conflicts.
    10. Addressing historical issues – Truth and Reconciliation Commissions on lines of post-conflict societies like South Africa, which focus on healing and rebuilding communal relationships.
    11. Sachar Committee: Appointed in 2005, it recommended the establishment of the Equal Opportunity Commission.
    12. Ranganath Misra Commission: It recommended 10% and 5% reservations for Muslim and other minorities respectively in center and state government jobs.
    13. 2nd ARC’s recommendations to curb religious conflicts:
      • District Peace Committees/Integration Councils 
      • Mohalla Committees to identify local problems with the potential to degenerate into communal conflicts.
      • Setting up of special courts for expeditious trial of cases related to communal violence.
      • Prescription of norms of relief and rehabilitation.

    SC judgments

    1. S.R. Bommai vs. Union of India (1994) –  secularism as a basic feature of the Constitution. 
    2. Tehseen S. Poonawalla vs. Union of India (2018) – The Supreme Court issued guidelines to curb mob violence and lynching. It directed the state governments to appoint nodal officers in each district to take proactive steps.
    3. Prakash Singh vs. Union of India (2006) – The Supreme Court laid down directives for police reforms, including the establishment of a Police Complaints Authority and fixed tenure for key police officials. 
    4. Aruna Roy vs. Union of India (2002) – underscored the importance of maintaining a secular curriculum in educational institutions.
    5. State of Karnataka vs. Dr. Praveen Togadia (2004) – SC held that the right to free speech and movement can be reasonably restricted to prevent communal violence and maintain public order.

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