As India completes eight years of implementing the Goods and Services Tax (GST), the focus has moved from its economic benefits to its problems, especially in public health, like the poor taxation of tobacco.
What are GST’s major achievements and gaps after eight years?
Achievements:
Unified Tax System: Replaced multiple indirect taxes with one national tax, promoting the “One Nation, One Tax” concept.
Improved Ease of Doing Business: Simplified compliance through harmonised tax rates and digital processes.
Boosted Logistics Efficiency: Removal of inter-State checkpoints reduced transport time and costs.
Reduced Tax Cascading: The Input Tax Credit mechanism lowered production costs for businesses and prices for consumers.
Gaps:
Ineffective Public Health Taxation: Tobacco taxation remains weak under GST, despite high health and economic burdens.
Decline in Specific Excise Duties: Over-reliance on ad valorem GST weakened price control on harmful products like bidis and cigarettes.
Inadequate Tax on Bidis: Bidis, widely consumed by low-income groups, are under-taxed and not covered under the GST compensation cess.
Loss of Revenue Post-Cess Expiry: The GST compensation cess (a major source of tobacco tax) will expire in 2026, risking affordability and public health.
Weak Deterrent Against Tobacco Use: Unlike pre-GST years, tax stagnation has failed to reduce tobacco consumption, ignoring WHO’s 75% tax recommendation.
Why is GST ineffective in curbing tobacco use?
Lack of Significant Tax Hikes Post-GST: Since the introduction of GST in 2017, there have been no major tax increases on tobacco products. In contrast, during the pre-GST era (2009–17), regular hikes in excise and VAT contributed to a 17% decline in tobacco use.
Low Overall Tax Burden: The total tax on tobacco remains below the WHO-recommended 75% of retail price — only 22% for bidis, 54% for cigarettes, and 65% for smokeless tobacco. This allows tobacco products to remain affordable, especially for youth and low-income groups.
Under-Taxation of Harmful Products like Bidis: Bidis, the most consumed smoked tobacco product, are exempt from the GST compensation cess. Despite causing harm similar to cigarettes, they generate very low tax revenue and are widely used by low-income populations, reducing the deterrent effect of taxation.
Reduced Price Deterrence: After GST, the share of excise duty fell sharply (e.g., from 54% to 8% for cigarettes), weakening the price-based disincentive for tobacco use.
Industry Manipulation of Ad Valorem Taxes: GST relies heavily on ad valorem taxes (based on product price), which are easier for the tobacco industry to manipulate through pricing strategies. Without specific excise duties, companies can keep prices low, making harmful products like bidis and cheap cigarettes affordable to the masses.
What reforms can align tobacco taxes with health goals? (Way forward)
Introduce or Increase Specific Excise Duties: Add a fixed per-unit tax (specific excise) on tobacco products along with GST. Eg: Countries like the Philippines combine ad valorem and specific taxes, leading to higher prices and lower consumption.
Raise GST and Cess to Statutory Limits: Increase GST on tobacco to the legal ceiling of 40% and expand the GST Compensation Cess to include under-taxed products like bidis. Eg: Bidis, used by the poor and causing major health harm, are not covered under the cess, reducing their tax burdenand health deterrence.
Link Tax Policy with Inflation and Income Growth: Regularly update tobacco taxes to offset rising incomes and inflation, preventing increased affordability over time. Eg: WHO recommends adjusting taxes annually so that tobacco doesn’t become more affordable even if incomes rise.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2019] Enumerate the indirect taxes which have been subsumed in the goods and services tax (GST) in India. Also, comment on the revenue implications of the GST introduced in India since July 2017.
Linkage: The article talks about the GST replaced many older taxes like VAT and excise duty, helping create a single national market. Although GST collections have steadily grown—reaching ₹22.08 lakh crore in 2024–25—the revenue from tobacco (about ₹551 billion a year) is much less than the huge cost of tobacco-related health problems, which is ₹2,340 billion every year.
Recently, the world’s growing preference for military force over peaceful talks have made India’s old policy of staying neutral and keeping strategic independence no longer enough.
Why is India’s neutrality no longer viable in the current global conflicts?
Erosion of Strategic Leverage in Multilateral Crises: Neutrality has diminished India’s influence during major global conflicts where clear moral or strategic stands are expected. Eg: During the Israel-Iran conflict, India’s equidistant stance failed to garner goodwill from Iran, while Israel saw no added strategic value either.
Increased Global Polarisation and Military Alignments: The world is now split into rival power groups, and staying neutral is often seen as being unsure or unwilling to take a stand. Eg: The U.S. bombing of Iran’s nuclear sites with bunker buster bombs, along with the growing China-Russia-Iran partnership, shows that being neutral in such a situation can actually be a liability and hurt a country’s interests.
Loss of Support from Traditional Partners: India’s neutral approach during its own security crises has failed to rally international support. Eg: During the recent India-Pakistan conflict, most West Asian countries and even the U.S. remained non-committal, despite India’s outreach in the Global South.
Reduced Credibility of Non-Alignment in a Hard Power World: Global forums are increasingly emphasising military strength over moral positioning. Neutrality is no longer seen as leadership. Eg: At the Shangri-La Dialogue, the U.S. stressed hard power and Indo-Pacific dominance, sidelining softer, non-aligned narratives like India’s.
What are the threats posed by the China-Pakistan military alliance?
Two-Front War Scenario: India faces the real risk of a coordinated military confrontation on both eastern and western borders. Eg: During the India-Pakistan conflict in May, intelligence revealed Pakistan’s preparedness using Chinese-supplied J-10C and JF-17 fighter jets, suggesting synchronised planning with China.
Enhanced Pakistani Military Capabilities: China’s transfer of advanced weaponry has significantly boosted Pakistan’s defence systems, improving its precision strike and surveillance capacity. Eg:Chinese radar, missile systems, and drone technology are now integrated into Pakistan’s command and control network, enhancing its offensive potential against India.
Asymmetric Nuclear Threat: The alliance magnifies the nuclear imbalance in the region, putting India at a strategic disadvantage. Eg: China and Pakistan together possess nearly a 5:1 advantage in nuclear warheads over India, escalating the deterrence challenge and increasing the risk of nuclear brinkmanship.
How has India’s Israel-Iran policy impacted its West Asia standing?
Loss of Credibility as a Neutral Mediator: India’s attempt to balance ties between Israel and Iran has diluted its influence in the region, as it failed to take a principled stand when it was needed most. Eg: During the Israel-Iran conflict, India’s mere call for “restraint on all sides” disappointed Iran, which expected vocal support against targeted attacks by Israel and the U.S.
Strained Relations with Key Regional Powers: India’s visible tilt towards Israel in recent years has alienated several West Asian countries, undermining its strategic and energy interests. Eg: India’s growing defence and technology cooperation with Israel has made its Iran policy less credible, especially after Iran was diplomatically isolated in the recent conflict.
What are the reforms needed to prepare India for a two-front war? (Way forward)
Strengthen Long-Duration War Capabilities: India must boost its ammunition reserves, logistics systems, and supply chain resilience to sustain prolonged conflicts on both fronts. Eg: The UK’s defence audit revealed critical gaps in its own war readiness—India too must conduct similar assessments to plug vulnerabilities.
Develop Advanced Technologies and AI Warfare: Investing in Artificial Intelligence (AI), drone warfare, loitering munitions, and electromagnetic systems is crucial to match modern battlefield requirements. Eg: Lessons from the Russia-Ukraine war show the growing role of AI-guided drones and precision weapons in shaping war outcomes.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2022] How will I2U2 (India, Israel, UAE and USA) grouping transform India’s position in global politics?
Linkage: India’s role in emerging strategic alliances, emphasizing the need to understand how new groupings can re-shape India’s influence and standing in global politics. The article underscores that India’s foreign policy is currently facing an “existential crisis” due to events like the India-Pakistan conflict, the China-Pakistan nexus, and the Israel-Iran conflict, where “neutrality is no longer an option.
The UPSC often frames questions on government schemes by combining policy intent with ground realities. Like in the 2014 PYQ on Aadhaar and NPR, it expects aspirants to not only explain a scheme’s objectives but also weigh its implications — development, equity, implementation concerns, and constitutional debates. That’s where aspirants often falter. They memorise features of schemes (like Shishu, Kishor, Tarun loans under MUDRA) but miss the critical lens — is the scheme truly solving the problem it set out to? Has it created lasting impact? What are the gaps? This article is crafted precisely to address that. It gives you more than a list of facts. It connects the dots — from “why MUDRA was needed” (to fight informal debt and promote self-employment), to “how the change played out” (like women SHGs starting tailoring units in Tiruchirappalli), and finally “where the system needs fixing” (rising NPAs and gender disparities in loan amounts). It helps you think in layers — the kind of thinking UPSC rewards.
This article examines the MUDRA scheme by connecting its policy goals with on-ground realities, which is exactly how UPSC frames questions. As seen in the 2014 question on Aadhaar and NPR, UPSC expects aspirants to go beyond listing features and assess a scheme’s actual impact.
Many aspirants memorise details like Shishu, Kishor, and Tarun loans but overlook critical issues such as effectiveness, inclusion, and long-term outcomes. This article addresses that gap. It explains why MUDRA was introduced, how it has played out through examples like women SHGs in Tiruchirappalli, and what challenges remain, including rising NPAs and unequal access. It encourages layered thinking that links intent, outcome, and reform — exactly the depth UPSC looks for in Mains answers.
PYQ ANCHORING
GS 2: Two parallel run schemes of the Government viz. the Adhaar Card and NPR, one as voluntary and the other as compulsory, have led to debates at national levels and also litigations. On merits, discuss whether or not both schemes need run concurrently. Analyse the potential of the schemes to achieve developmental benefits and equitable growth [2014]
MICROTHEMES: Government Schemes and Policies
Back in April 2015, when the Pradhan Mantri MUDRA Yojana (PMMY) was launched, it promised to rewrite the credit story for India’s smallest entrepreneurs — the street vendor selling chaat, the tailor in a small town, the woman running a home-based pickle business. These were people who were often seen by banks as “too small to lend to,” surviving on high-interest informal loans or personal savings.
PMMY aimed to change that — to bring dignity to micro-entrepreneurship, to unlock dreams with formal credit, and to create a culture of self-employment beyond big cities and boardrooms.
Ten years later, the scheme has crossed major milestones in disbursal numbers and reach. But behind the celebration, some tough questions remain. Has MUDRA genuinely empowered the micro-entrepreneurs it set out to help? Is easy credit leading to sustainable growth — or just more debt ? And most importantly, is India building a robust support system beyond loans to help its smallest businesses thrive?
About Mudra Scheme // PRELIMS
Feature
Details
Purpose
MUDRA was established to promote the development and refinancing of micro enterprises across the country.
Collateral-Free Loans
Loans are collateral-free (no need for security) and can go up to ₹20 lakh.
Who Provides the Loans (MLIs)
Loans are offered by Member Lending Institutions (MLIs), which include:
– Scheduled Commercial Banks (SCBs)
– Regional Rural Banks (RRBs)
– Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs)
– Micro Finance Institutions (MFIs)
Loan Categories (Interventions)
The scheme has three categories of loans, depending on the business stage:
1. Shishu – Loans up to ₹50,000 (for early-stage/startups)
2. Kishor – Loans from ₹50,001 to ₹5 lakh (for growing businesses)
3. Tarun – Loans from ₹5 lakh to ₹10 lakh (for well-established businesses ready to expand)
Focus Areas
Supports income-generating activities in manufacturing, trading, services, and also agriculture-related activities.
Goal
To provide access to formal credit for small entrepreneurs, especially those in rural and underserved areas.
Reasons of introducing Mudra Yojana
Reason
Explanation
1. Credit Gap for Small Businesses
Millions of small businesses in India were running without access to banks. They depended on moneylenders with high interest rates and tough terms.
2. Encourage Job Creators, Not Job Seekers
The scheme promotes self-employment by enabling people to start or grow small businesses instead of waiting for government or private jobs.
3. Boost to Financial Inclusion
It helps bring the informal sector into the formal financial system, especially marginalized communities, women, and rural entrepreneurs.
4. Support the Non-Corporate Sector
Most of India’s economy runs on tiny, non-corporate setups (street vendors, repair shops, artisans, etc.) that were not bank-financed earlier.
5. Fuel Grassroots Economic Growth
By helping small businesses grow, the scheme supports local jobs, incomes, and economic activity at the bottom of the pyramid.
Change in the state of affairs brought by MUDRA
The MUDRA scheme transformed the state of affairs by giving small entrepreneurs, especially those in the informal and underserved sectors, access to formal, collateral-free, affordable credit — helping them grow, create jobs, and become financially empowered.
Problem Before MUDRA
Change Brought by MUDRA
1. No access to formal credit
Enabled collateral-free loans up to ₹10 lakh (later ₹20 lakh) through banks, NBFCs, and MFIs.
2. Dependence on moneylenders
Replaced informal, high-interest borrowing with institutional credit at lower rates.
3. Lack of customized support
Introduced Shishu, Kishor, Tarun categories based on business stage — startup to expansion.
4. Marginalized groups excluded from banking
Brought SC/ST/OBCs (50%), women (68%), and minorities (11%) into the financial mainstream.
5. Stagnant micro-enterprise growth
Encouraged upscaling of businesses — Kishor and Tarun loans grew significantly.
6. No entrepreneurship culture in small towns/villages
Fostered a shift from job-seeking to job-creating, especially in rural and small-town India.
7. Women were financially sidelined
Women became the majority beneficiaries, seeing higher average loan amounts and growing deposit trends.
8. Informal sector lacked structure/support
Helped fund over 52 crore loans worth ₹32+ lakh crore, supporting ~10 crore jobs and building a credit history for many.
IMPACT ASSESSMENT: REAL CHANGE OR HYPE ? /MAINS
The MUDRA scheme has brought visible change on the ground, but the impact is not uniform. While many success stories exist — especially in rural and semi-urban India — the scheme has also faced implementation and quality challenges.
Positive Changes
Area of Impact
Examples & Outcomes
1. Women-led Enterprises Grew
In Tamil Nadu’s Tiruchirappalli, women self-help groups used MUDRA loans to start tailoring units and food stalls.
2. Local Entrepreneurship Boosted
In Uttar Pradesh, roadside vendors and small traders like tea sellers used Shishu loans (₹50,000) to formalize their setup.
3. Credit History Creation
First-time borrowers (especially from SC/ST/OBC backgrounds) now have a credit record, allowing future financial access.
4. Employment in Rural Areas
In Bihar and Odisha, MUDRA loans enabled small shops and service businesses, generating local employment.
5. Upscaling by Existing Businesses
Many who started with a Shishu loan later moved to Kishor and Tarun categories, showing real business growth.
Challenges and Criticism
Issue
Reality on Ground
1. Quality of Loans Questioned
A large share of loans are Shishu loans (small ticket), which may not always lead to real business transformation.
2. Non-Performing Assets (NPAs)
NPAs under PMMY have risen to over 9%, indicating repayment stress in some cases due to poor business viability.
3. Over-Indebtedness in Some Areas
In parts of Maharashtra and Telangana, multiple small loans have burdened borrowers, affecting creditworthiness.
4. Lack of Business Support
Credit was given, but often without training or hand-holding, leading to poor business planning or misuse of funds.
5. Gender Disparities in Usage
While women are 68% of beneficiaries numerically, a majority still get smallest loans (Shishu), reflecting inequality.
MUDRA YOJANA: KEY ROLE IN REALISATION OF SDGs
SDG Number
SDG Title
Contribution of MUDRA Yojana
SDG 1
No Poverty
Provides micro-finance, lifting individuals from poverty by supporting micro-entrepreneurs.
SDG 5
Gender Equality
68% of beneficiaries are women, promoting their economic independence and financial inclusion.
SDG 8
Decent Work and Economic Growth
Contributes to job creation and self-employment by providing financial support to micro-businesses.
SDG 10
Reduced Inequality
Supports marginalized communities, with 50% of MUDRA accounts held by SC/ST/OBCs, and 11% by minorities.
SDG 9
Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure
Promotes small businesses in MSME sectors, fostering local industrial growth and infrastructure development.
SDG 12
Responsible Consumption and Production
Encourages local production, supporting sustainable consumption patterns and small-scale industries.
Way Forward
Credit-Plus Model: Combine PMMY with schemes like Skill India, Startup India, and ODOP, offering digital tools, mentorship, and market connections. Example: South Korea’s KOSME provides financial and non-financial support, including mentoring and export promotion.
Sector-Specific Targets: Focus MUDRA loans on sectors like agri-tech, renewable energy, health-tech, and EVs. Example: Germany’s KfW Bank offers targeted loans for green energy and tech startups.
NPA Monitoring: Use AI-driven systems and community loan circles to improve repayment culture and prevent defaults.
Formalization & Tax Incentives: Push borrowers to register under UDYAM, file returns, and link with GST/TReDS.
Data & Impact Audits: Conduct annual audits and create public dashboards for enterprise outcomes. Example: UK’s British Business Bank.
Regional Credit Ecosystems: Empower DLCCs to link PMMY with local centers like Krishi Vigyan Kendras, RSETIs, and CSCs. Example: Kenya’s Huduma Centres.
The MUDRA Yojana has made strides in democratizing credit and empowering women and marginalized communities. However, for India’s future, PMMY should evolve from mere loan distribution to fostering quality entrepreneurship, focusing on mentorship, monitoring, and sectoral integration.
#BACK2BASICS: MUDRA YOJANA
Achievements of MUDRA Yojana
Massive Outreach & Mindset Shift: 52+ crore loans worth ₹32.61 lakh crore since 2015, encouraging people in small towns to start businesses.
MSME Credit Growth: MSME loans grew from ₹8.51 lakh crore (2014) to ₹27.25 lakh crore (2024), with 20% of bank credit going to MSMEs.
Women Empowerment: 68% of beneficiaries are women. Loan sizes growing at 13% annually, boosting financial independence.
Inclusion of Marginalized Communities: 50% of accounts are held by SC/ST/OBCs, 11% by minorities, increasing formal financial inclusion.
Growth-Stage Financing: 45% of loans are ₹50K–₹5 lakh, up from 5.9% in 2016, indicating business expansion.
Rising Loan Size & Confidence: Average loan size increased from ₹38,000 (2016) to ₹1.02 lakh (2025), showing growing entrepreneurial confidence.
Top Performing States & UTs: Tamil Nadu, UP, and Karnataka are top disbursers, with J&K leading among UTs.
Funding the Micro Sector: Supports around 10 crore jobs, enhancing livelihoods and mobility.
Significance of MUDRA Yojana
Financial Inclusion: 70% of beneficiaries are first-time borrowers, increasing access to credit.
Democratizing Credit: Benefits first-time entrepreneurs from marginalized communities in rural and semi-urban areas.
Boosting Entrepreneurship: MUDRA loans created 1.12 crore jobs (2015-2018). E.g., Lalita Devi started a tailoring business, now employing five women.
Gender-Inclusive Policy: Increased female labor force participation from 23% to 41.7%. E.g., Shanti Devi expanded her papad-making business, increasing her income from ₹5,000 to ₹25,000.
Supporting Informal Sector: Formalizes informal businesses. 30% of borrowers transitioned to formal credit lines.
Aligning with SDGs: Supports SDG 8 (Decent Work) and SDG 5 (Gender Equality).
Atmanirbhar Bharat: Promotes local manufacturing and self-reliance, especially post-COVID.
Challenges Faced by Micro-Enterprises
Access to Finance: 30% of loan applications are rejected due to documentation issues.
Infrastructure Gaps: Poor roads and unreliable electricity limit business scalability.
Lack of Growth Orientation: 80% of loans support subsistence businesses, hindering growth.
Skill Development Gaps: Only 25% of beneficiaries receive skill training.
Policy Advocacy Needs: 40% of beneficiaries are unaware of tax exemptions like GST.
Market Development Gaps: Only 15% of MUDRA products reach organized markets.
Knowledge Gaps: 60% of borrowers don’t understand loan terms.
Information Asymmetry: 35% of loan rejections are due to insufficient credit history.
Entry-Level Tech Gaps: Only 20% of businesses use digital tools.
The Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) released Version 2.0 of the Checklist of Fauna of India, documenting 105,244 species and subspecies.
Back2Basics: Zoological Survey of India
The ZSI was set up by British zoologist Thomas Nelson Annandale in 1916.
It is the premier taxonomic research organisation in India, based in Kolkata.
It was established to promote surveys, exploration and research leading to the advancement of our knowledge of various aspects of the exceptionally rich animal life of India.
The ZSI had its genesis as the Zoological Section of the Indian Museum at Calcutta in 1875.
Since its inception, the ZSI has been documenting the diversity and distribution of the fauna of India towards carrying out its mandate of conducting exploration-cum-taxonomic-research programmes.
The ZSI has published an extremely large amount of information on all animal taxa, from Protozoa to Mammalia.
Key Findings About ZSI’s Work and Discoveries (2024–25):
Significant Animal Discoveries:
New Genus: Dravidoseps gouensis – a new genus of skink (lizard) from Western Ghats
New Species of Snakes: Anguiculus dicaprioi – named after actor Leonardo DiCaprio, belongs to the Colubridae family
Other Reptiles: 2 new genera and 37 new species of reptiles discovered
Amphibians: 5 new amphibian species, including frogs from northeastern and southern India
Other Invertebrates: Multiple new insect species, particularly among beetles, moths, flies, and bees
Highest representation among newly discovered species were insects, especially:
Coleoptera (beetles)
Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies)
Diptera (flies)
Hymenoptera (ants, bees, wasps)
[2020] With reference to India’s Biodiversity, Ceylon frogmouth, Coppersmith barbet, Gray-chinned minivet and White-throated redstart are:
A new species of flowering plant, Begonia nyishiorum, has been discovered in the East Kameng district of Arunachal Pradesh.
About Begonia nyishiorum:
Overview: Begonia nyishiorum is a recently identified flowering plant found in East Kameng, Arunachal Pradesh, and is endemic to this region.
Scientific Recognition: It was officially described in June 2025 in Novon, a peer-reviewed journal published by the Missouri Botanical Garden.
Feature: The species is notable for its crimson, fringed scales (indumentum) on light green petioles, a distinct trait among Asian begonias.
Habitat and Range: It thrives on moist, shaded mountain slopes between 1,500 and 3,000 metres in altitude.
Ecological Sensitivity: Known from only two forest locations, the plant is potentially vulnerable and warrants conservation attention.
Name Origin: The species name nyishiorum honours the Nyishi tribe, known for their traditional ecological stewardship of local forests.
About the Nyishi Tribe:
Overview: The Nyishi are the largest ethnic group in Arunachal Pradesh, with a population of about 300,000.
Name Meaning: The word “Nyishi” combines “Nyi” (man) and “Shi” (being), signifying a civilised human in their language.
Linguistic Identity: Their language belongs to the Sino-Tibetan family, although its origins remain debated among scholars.
Geographic Spread: They live in eight districts of Arunachal Pradesh (like East Kameng, Papum Pare, and Kurung Kumey) and parts of Assam.
Livelihood Practices: Their economy includes slash-and-burn farming, hunting, fishing, and handicrafts such as bamboo work and weaving.
Key Festivals: They celebrate Boori-Boot (Feb) for unity, Nyokum (Feb) for prosperity, and Longte (Apr) for protection from evil.
Social Structure: Nyishi society is patrilineal and clan-based, with no caste system or rigid social hierarchy.
Role of Women: Women are seen as symbols of peace and prosperity, and marriages involve reciprocal family exchanges that build community ties.
[UPSC 2016] Recently, our scientists have discovered a new and distinct species of banana plant which attains a height of about 11 metres and has orange-coloured fruit pulp.
The Department of Land Resources (DoLR) under the Ministry of Rural Development is set to launch the second phase of capacity building for the NAKSHA programme (NAtional geospatial Knowledge-based land Survey of urban HAbitations).
About NAKSHA Program:
Overview: It was launched on 18th February 2025. It is a geospatial land survey initiative launched by the Department of Land Resources (DoLR), Ministry of Rural Development, under the Digital India Land Records Modernisation Programme (DILRMP).
Objective: The programme aims to modernise urban land records, make property ownership more transparent, and streamline urban governance.
Funding: It is 100% centrally funded, with an estimated cost of ₹194 crore.
Significance: The programme was launched in response to India’s rapidly growing urban population, which is expected to exceed 600 million by 2031.
Key Features:
Pilot Coverage: Implemented in 157 ULBs covering an area of 4,142.63 sq km, focusing on towns with an area of <35 sq km and a population of<2 lakh.
Drone-Based Survey: Uses drones equipped with LiDAR sensors and 5 cm resolution cameras to conduct aerial surveys.
Three-Stage Survey Process:
Drone Survey & Data Collection
Field Verification & Draft Mapping
Public Review & Finalisation
Integration with Legal Records: Field surveys validate and update property tax, ownership, and registration data.
[UPSC 2024] With reference to the Digital India Land Records Modernisation Programme, consider the following statements:
1. To implement the scheme, the Central Government provides 100% funding.
2. Under the Scheme, Cadastral Maps are digitised.
3. An initiative has been undertaken to transliterate the Records of Rights from local language to any of the languages recognized by the Constitution of India.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*
The Prada incident, involving footwear resembling India’s GI-tagged Kolhapuri chappals, has reignited debates on cultural respect, equitable benefit sharing, and the need for stronger global enforcement of GI rights.
About the Kolhapuri Chappal Controversy:
Cultural Origin: They originated in Kolhapur and nearby districts in Maharashtra and Karnataka, dating back to the 12th–13th century, once worn by royals.
Craftsmanship and Features: These chappals are handmade from vegetable-tanned leather, use no nails or synthetic parts, and feature a T-strap design in natural tones.
GI Tag Recognition: They received a GI tag in 2019, covering eight districts across the two states.
Allegations Against Prada: Italian luxury brand Prada was accused of unauthorised cultural appropriation for selling similar sandals without acknowledging the traditional origin.
Global Enforcement Gap: The controversy highlights the limited international protection for GI-tagged goods and the need for stronger legal safeguards abroad.
Earlier Cultural Misappropriation Cases:
Basmati Rice (1997): The US Patent and Trademark Office granted a patent to Ricetec Inc., claiming new “lines and grains” of basmati rice. After diplomatic and legal pressure, Ricetec was barred from using the term “Basmati.”
Turmeric (1995): A U.S. patent was granted for turmeric’s wound-healing properties, a use long documented in Ayurveda. CSIR successfully challenged and had the patent revoked.
Neem (2000): The European Patent Office revoked a patent granted to the USDA and W.R. Grace for neem-based antifungal formulations, citing that such usage existed in Indian traditional knowledge.
Back2Basics: Geographical Indication (GI) Tags
Purpose: A GI tag is a form of intellectual property that certifies a product’s origin from a specific place where its quality or reputation is uniquely linked to that location.
Significance: GI tags help preserve cultural heritage, promote rural livelihoods, and enable market access for indigenous communities.
Legal Framework in India: In India, GI registration is governed by the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999, in force since 2003, and managed by the DPIIT, Ministry of Commerce.
Ownership and Validity: A GI tag is collectively owned by local producers, valid for 10 years, and renewable indefinitely, unlike private trademarks.
Examples of GI Goods: India has 658 GI goods, including Darjeeling tea, Madhubani paintings, Pashmina shawls, Chanderi sarees, and Kancheepuram silk.
Jurisdiction of Protection: GI protection is territorial, meaning legal misuse can only be challenged within the registered country, unless separately protected abroad.
Global Legal Backing: GI rights are supported by international treaties like the Paris Convention (1883) and the TRIPS Agreement (1995).
[UPSC 2024] The Doctrine of Democratic Governance makes it necessary that the public perception of the integrity and commitment of civil servants becomes absolutely positive. Discuss.
Linkage: The new criminal codes, through provisions like mandatory audio-video recording of searches and seizures, aim to improve the quality of investigation and ensure greater integrity and commitment from investigating officers (IOs). This directly seeks to foster a positive public perception of civil servants involved in law enforcement, aligning with the query’s emphasis on progress in the new codes.
Mentor’s Comment: As India completes one year of implementing its overhauled criminal justice framework—comprising the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS), and Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam (BSA)—the on-ground feedback is beginning to surface. A major highlight has been the operationalization of the ‘e-Sakshya’ app for real-time evidence collection. While it empowers investigation officers (IOs) and enhances transparency, several systemic and logistical constraints hinder its full potential. Despite attempts at modernization, the gap between legal reforms and infrastructural readiness threatens to blunt the progressive intent of these laws. This transitional phase is a crucial moment for policy correction and investment.
Today’s editorial talks about the effectiveness of India’s new criminal laws—BNS, BNSS, and BSA. This topic is important for GS Paper II (Indian Polity & Governance) in the UPSC mains exam.
_
Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Recently, India’s new criminal laws—BNS, BNSS, and BSA—mark a year of implementation. Technological tools like the e-Sakshya app aid progress, but feedback from investigating officers reveals key challenges and improvement needs.
What are the key improvements brought by the BNS, BNSS, and BSA in the criminal justice system?
Modernization of Colonial Laws: The new laws replace the outdated Indian Penal Code (1860), CrPC (1973), and Indian Evidence Act (1872), aligning criminal justice with contemporary realities, citizen-centric values, and technological advancements.
Integration of Technology in Investigation: The BNSS mandates audio-video recording of critical procedures such as search, seizure, and statement recording. It supports the use of tools like the ‘e-Sakshya’ app for real-time digital evidence collection, improving transparency and accountability.
Improved Victim-Centric and Time-Bound Procedures: Provisions like seven-day deadlines for medical reports in rape cases and emphasis on video conferencing for witness examination under BNSS aim to ensure faster process, reduce trauma for victims, and increase judicial efficiency.
How has the ‘e-Sakshya’ app enhanced evidence collection and policing?
Real-time digital documentation: The app enables investigating officers to capture photos and videos on the spot with geo-coordinates and a timestamp, ensuring authenticity and preventing tampering. For instance, during a search and seizure, the officer must record the process under Section 105 of BNSS, improving transparency.
Improved accountability in investigations: Investigating officers are now required to take selfies at crime scenes, ensuring that they personally conduct the investigation and don’t delegate it unofficially. This deters fabrication of evidence and builds a stronger chain of custody for trial.
Strengthened witness reliability: The visual capture of witness presence at the crime scene discourages denial of participation later in court. Eg when a suspect is made to show the place where a weapon or contraband is hidden, the recording serves as reliable secondary electronic evidence admissible in court.
Why is digital integration through CCTNS and ICJS vital for the new laws’ success?
Seamless transition and registration of cases: The Crime and Criminal Tracking Network and Systems (CCTNS) ensures smooth FIR registration and jurisdictional transfers, enabling police stations to shift from old laws to BNS, BNSS, and BSA without disruption. For instance, zero FIRs are easily routed to the correct police stations within a state using CCTNS.
Interlinking of justice system pillars: The Inter-operable Criminal Justice System (ICJS) connects police with forensic labs, prosecution, courts, and jails, improving coordination and efficiency. This digital integration supports time-bound actions like forwarding medical examination reports or conducting video-based evidence collection as mandated under BNSS.
Note: About Zero FIR It refers to a First Investigation Report (FIR) that is registered irrespective of the area where the offence is committed. The police in such a case can no longer claim that they have no jurisdiction.
What are the challenges that hinder the effective implementation of the new criminal laws?
Inadequate digital infrastructure: Many police stations have only one tablet, and officers often use their personal phones to operate the e-Sakshya app, which requires Android version 10 or higher and at least 1GB of storage. This limits the ability to uniformly implement mandatory audio-video recording provisions under BNSS.
Lack of real-time integration with courts: While images and videos are stored on the National Government Cloud (NGC), courts still do not directly access this digital evidence through the ICJS. Instead, police submit evidence using pen drives, leading to duplication, extra costs, and delay in proceedings.
Forensic and legal bottlenecks: Despite the requirement of FSL expert visits under Section 176 of BNSS, forensic infrastructure in many states remains underdeveloped. Also, cybercrime evidence often needs expert analysis and testimony, but State forensic labs are yet to be notified under the IT Act, hampering admissibility of digital evidence.
What reforms are needed to address them? (Way forward)
Strengthen digital infrastructure in police stations: The government should ensure that each investigating officer (IO) has access to a dedicated device compatible with thee-Sakshya app. Providing sufficient tablets or mobile phones with the required specifications will help officers capture evidence reliably and eliminate the need for using personal devices.
Enable direct court access to digital evidence: Courts must be integrated with the Inter-operable Criminal Justice System (ICJS) to allow secure, real-time access to evidence stored on the National Government Cloud. This will eliminate dependency on external storage like pen drives and promote efficiency and authenticity in judicial proceedings.
The proposed changes in the Income-Tax Bill, 2025 allowing tax officials to access a person’s “virtual digital space” during search and seizure have sparked strong debate about privacy, government surveillance, and misuse of power.
What is the current legal framework for tax-related search and seizure?
Under Section 132 of the Income-Tax Act, 1961, search and seizure powers are currently restricted to physical spaces like houses, offices, and lockers.
These powers are exercised based on a reasonable suspicion of undisclosed income or assets, and apply only to the person under investigation.
What does the new proposal change?
Expansion to digital realm: The new proposal includes access to emails, cloud storage, social media accounts, digital applications, and vaguely “any other space of similar nature.”
Override of access barriers: Authorities can override access codes of devices to enter these digital spaces.
Open-ended scope: The vague phrasing leaves room for nearly any digital platform to fall under scrutiny, exposing data beyond the individual concerned.
What are the privacy risks of allowing tax access to digital spaces?
Deep intrusion into personal life: Digital spaces like emails, social media, and cloud drives contain private, non-financial information. Their access exposes not just the individual but also their family, friends, and professional networks.
Risk to confidentiality: Professionals like journalists and lawyers could have confidential sources and sensitive data compromised, affecting freedom of expression and legal rights.
Lack of oversight: The provision allows tax authorities to bypass judicial warrants, violating principles of transparency, accountability, and privacy.
What is the Proportionality Principle?
Proportionality Principle is a legal doctrine that ensures any action taken by the State—especially those that limit fundamental rights—must be reasonable, necessary, and least restrictive in achieving a legitimate aim.
How does the proposal violate the proportionality principle?
Absence of judicial safeguards: The proposal allows tax authorities to access an individual’s digital data without prior judicial approval or warrant. In contrast, the U.S. Supreme Court in Riley vs California mandated warrants before accessing digital content due to the sensitive nature of personal data.
No relevance filter for accessed data: The provision lacks a clear distinction between financial and non-financial data, enabling authorities to access personal content unrelated to tax evasion. For instance, a journalist’s device could reveal confidential sources and communications, compromising press freedom.
Fails the least intrusive means test: The measure does not explore less invasive options to meet enforcement goals and grants sweeping powers without ensuring necessity. The Supreme Court in the Puttaswamy case clearly stated that any restriction on privacy must be necessary and adopt the least intrusive method.
Which global safeguards can India adopt for digital searches?
Judicial Authorization Before Search: In Canada, Section 8 of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms mandates that searches (including digital) must be pre-approved by a neutral and impartial judge, based on reasonable and probable grounds. This ensures accountability and protects citizens from arbitrary intrusions.
Warrant Requirement for Digital Devices: In the United States, the Supreme Court ruling in Riley v. California (2014) held that law enforcement must obtain a warrant before accessing data on cell phones, given the deeply personal nature of digital information. This aligns digital privacy with Fourth Amendment protections against unreasonable searches.
Taxpayer Bill of Rights: The U.S. Internal Revenue Service (IRS) enforces the Taxpayer Bill of Rights, which guarantees that searches are not more intrusive than necessary and are conducted with due process. It emphasizes that digital investigations must follow legal safeguards, respecting taxpayer privacy.
Way forward:
Mandate Judicial Oversight and Clear Warrants: Any access to an individual’s digital space must require prior approval from a neutral judicial authority, based on tangible evidence and specific relevance to the tax investigation.
Define ‘Virtual Digital Space’ Narrowly and Precisely: The term should be clearly limited to platforms directly linked to financial transactions, excluding unrelated personal data, to prevent excessive intrusion and ensure proportionality.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] Right to privacy is intrinsic to life and personal liberty and is inherently protected under Article 21 of the Constitution. Explain. In this reference discuss the law relating to D.N.A. testing of a child in the womb to establish its paternity.
Linkage: This question directly addresses the fundamental right to privacy, which is the central concern raised by the proposed digital search powers in the Income-Tax Bill, 2025. The article explicitly states that the Bill “raises significant concerns about privacy, overreach, and surveillance” and emphasizes that “The right to privacy cannot and must not be eroded under the garb of regulatory action”.
Recently, the three-language rule in the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 has caused a new dispute in Maharashtra, showing people’s worries about language and political disagreements.
What are the key features of the three-language policy under NEP 2020?
Mandatory Learning of Three Languages: All students must learn three languages during their school education.
Flexible Language Choice: States and schools have the autonomy to choose any two Indian languages and one foreign language, removing the compulsion of Hindi.
Promotion of Multilingualism: Emphasis on learning regional, national, and global languages, thereby fostering cultural and linguistic diversity.
Mother Tongue as Medium of Instruction: Preference is given to teaching in the mother tongue or regional language at least up to Grade 5, and preferably till Grade 8.
No Imposition of Any Language: The policy avoids mandatory imposition of Hindi or any other language across the country.
Implementation Based on Demand: A minimum of 20 students must demand a specific third language in a school for it to be introduced.
Why has the implementation of the three-language policy sparked resistance in States like Maharashtra?
Fear of Hindi Imposition: Despite the NEP 2020’s flexibility, there is a strong perception that Hindi is being prioritised as the default second language, especially after Maharashtra’s decision to make Hindi mandatory till Class 5.
Threat to Regional Identity: The policy is seen as undermining Marathi linguistic and cultural identity, which has historically been a sensitive issue in the State.
Distrust in Government Intentions: The formation of a committee rather than outright scrapping of the decision raised suspicion about hidden agendas, including the promotion of the Right-wing ‘Hindi, Hindu, Hindustan’ ideology.
How does the perceived imposition of Hindi affect regional linguistic identity and federal harmony?
Resentment in Non-Hindi Speaking States: Imposing Hindi is perceived as marginalising regional languages like Tamil, Telugu, Bengali, and Malayalam, causing strong backlash. Eg: Tamil Nadu has consistently opposed the three-language formula, invoking the “anti-Hindi imposition” movementdating back to the 1960s.
Weakening of Linguistic Pluralism and Diversity: Promoting one language risks diluting India’s multilingual fabric, which is essential for preserving cultural identity and inclusiveness. Eg: In North-East India, states like Manipur and Nagaland have expressed concerns over losing native tongues due to Hindi-centric policies.
Strain on Federal Relations: Perceived language imposition creates friction between the Centre and States, weakening cooperative federalism and leading to policy resistance. Eg: Several southern states have demanded greater autonomy in education policy, arguing that central language decisions ignore regional aspirations.
What is the relevance of the three-language policy for academic purposes?
Promotes Inclusivity and Communication in Diverse Settings: Multilingual proficiency helps students communicate across regions, fostering national integration and better participation in higher education and jobs. Eg: A student from Kerala who knows Hindi and English can study or work in northern India or abroad more comfortably.
Enhances Cognitive and Learning Abilities: Learning multiple languages improves memory, problem-solving, and critical thinking skills, aiding overall academic performance. Eg: Studies show that multilingual students often perform better in tasks requiring attention and multitasking.
Improves Access to Knowledge and Resources: Knowing more than one language enables students to access a broader range of textbooks, research, and cultural literature, enriching their academic experience. Eg: A student fluent in English and a regional language can read both international academic content and local history or literature.
What are the challenges do schools face in offering diverse language options under the policy?
Limited Availability of Qualified Language Teachers: Most schools lack trained teachers for non-regional or less commonly spoken languages, making it hard to implement true linguistic diversity. Eg: A school in Bihar may struggle to find teachers for Tamil, Kannada, or Malayalam, even if students want to learn them.
Low Student Demand for Minority Languages: The policy requires a minimum of 20 students to demand a language for it to be introduced, which excludes smaller linguistic communities. Eg: In many Hindi-speaking regions, languages like Telugu or Bengali are not offered due to insufficient student numbers.
Way forward:
Strengthen Teacher Training and Language Infrastructure: Invest in recruiting and training teachers for a wider range of Indian languages, and develop teaching materials in collaboration with state language boards.
Ensure Flexibility and Regional Autonomy: Allow States and schools to adapt the three-language policy based on local linguistic demographics, ensuring inclusivity without enforcing a one-size-fits-all model.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2015] Describe any four cultural elements of diversity in India and rate their relative significance in building a national identity.
Linkage: This question is related to “Diversity and pluralism,” which directly talk about the language as a cultural element. The article highlights how language can become a point of contention, with some seeing a uniform language policy as essential for national identity, while others view it as an “imposition” that undermines the rich cultural and linguistic diversity of India.
