Answer

Introduction: Briefly define the key concept in the question and set the context with a relevant fact, report or constitutional provision.

Body: Examine the issue across 3–4 dimensions — constitutional, political, administrative and social. Support each point with an example, a committee recommendation or a Supreme Court judgment.

Challenges: Highlight the main gaps or criticisms, with data where possible.

Way forward: Suggest practical, specific reforms drawn from expert committees and best practices.

Conclusion: Close with a balanced, forward-looking statement that links back to the question.

Buffer Stock & Food Security

Agriculture › Buffer Stock & Food Security

2024

PDS is the world’s largest food transfer programme and social safety net, accounting for around 50% of India’s overall social assistance budget. Buffer Stock is the foundational pillar of this system.

Buffer Stock Norms

Introduced during the 4th Five Year Plan (1969-74).

Fixed by cabinet committee on Economic Affairs on quarterly basis

In 2025, rice and wheat stocks in Central Pool stands at 736 Lakh MT against buffer stock norm of 411 Lakh MT

Importance of Buffer Stocks for Stabilising Agricultural Prices in India

Supports farmers through MSP procurement: Prevents distress sales during bumper harvests.

Controls consumer prices through Open Market Sale Scheme. Eg- In 2022-23, FCI released 34.82 lakh tonnes of wheat.

Ensures food security: ensures uninterrupted supply for NFSA, ICDS, PM-POSHAN (Cover 81 crore people)

Checks hoarding: Strategic release of stocks curbs artificial scarcity and black-marketing. Eg- Release of Pulses by NAFED

Acts as a safety net during supply disruptions and emergencies. Eg- during COVID.

Inter-state distribution stability: Ensures consistent supply to deficit states.

Market confidence: Adequate stocks signal stability and prevent panic buying

Export of extra produce: Eg- Surplus wheat from buffer stocks was exported to Africa in 2021

Challenges Associated with the Storage of Buffer Stock

Excessive stocking by FCI increases carrying costs. Eg- Central pool rice stocks 4 times the buffer

Heavy reliance on CAP (cover-and-plinth) storage leads to high wastage. (40% of total food)

High transport costs due to concentration of procurement in limited states. Eg- 60% godowns in 5 states.

Overstocking results in rotting and quality deterioration. Over 6 lakh tonnes of foodgrains rotted in FCI godowns

High Storage Cost – Eg- FCI’s annual storage cost for buffer stocks reached

Pilferage and Theft due to poor security measures and leakages in the distribution network.

Regional procurement imbalances: Eg- Eastern and NE states remain under-procured

Lack of Modern Technology – lack silos, temperature control, and humidity monitoring. Only 20% of buffer stock stored in modern silos

Environmental concerns: Excess procurement of rice strains groundwater, fertiliser use, and stubble burning.

Way Forward

Technological Integration: Eg- blockchain for transparent and secure buffer stock management.

Expansion of modern silos equipped with temperature and humidity control. (Shanta Kumar Committee)

Rural Agri-Logistics Nodes under Gati Shakti Framework to develop cold chains, aggregation centers

Expanding FCI Private Entrepreneurs Guarantee (PEG) Scheme to involve the private sector in creating modern godowns.

Revision of Buffer Stock Norms based on actual requirement and demand patterns. (Ashok Gulati Committee)

Strengthening storage is essential for a more efficient, resilient grain management system.

Agriculture Marketing and supply chains

Answer

Introduction: Briefly define the key concept in the question and set the context with a relevant fact, report or constitutional provision.

Body: Examine the issue across 3–4 dimensions — constitutional, political, administrative and social. Support each point with an example, a committee recommendation or a Supreme Court judgment.

Challenges: Highlight the main gaps or criticisms, with data where possible.

Way forward: Suggest practical, specific reforms drawn from expert committees and best practices.

Conclusion: Close with a balanced, forward-looking statement that links back to the question.

Irrigation

Agriculture › Irrigation

2024

The agriculture sector utilizes approximately 78% of India’s total usable water resources. However, 45% of agricultural land is rainfed.

Major challenges faced by Indian Irrigation system

P – Political Factors

Political populism – Eg- power and irrigation subsidies in Punjab

Inter-State Water Disputes – Conflicts such as the Cauvery Water Dispute and the Satluj Yamuna Link Canal hinder efficient water distribution and irrigation planning.

Prioritization of Large-Scale Projects – Political support often favors large-scale projects that benefit influential farmers and regions.

E – Economic Factors

Declining Public Investment since the 1980s, with a shift toward input subsidies rather than capital investment. (Economic Survey)

High Cost of Irrigation Infrastructure

85% farmers have <2 ha, making modern irrigation systems uneconomical

S – Social Factors

Weak Water Users Associations (WUAs) – lack capacity and resources.

Uneven Irrigation Distribution – Northern & coastal regions have better irrigation, while central and western India suffer inadequate supply.

T – Technological Factors

Low Water Use Efficiency (WUE) – Flood irrigation (~70%) leads to evaporation, runoff, and seepage losses.

Aging & Poorly Maintained Canal Systems – Unlined canals cause 40-50% seepage losses.

Low adoption of technology – Eg- micro-irrigation covers only 7.6% of the net sown area

L – Legal / Governance Factors

Weak Enforcement of Water Governance Rules (Mihir Shah Committee)

E – Environmental Factors

Groundwater Depletion – Eg- Punjab’s water table declines by ~1 meter annually.

Poor drainage leads to salinization and reduced soil fertility, especially in canal-irrigated regions.

Climate Change Impact – Eg- glacial retreat in the Himalayas threatens long-term river flows.

Government Measures for Efficient Irrigation Management

PM Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) – Promotes micro-irrigation (drip/sprinkler) through subsidies.

Components: Har Khet Ko Pani, Per Drop More Crop, Watershed Development.

Micro-Irrigation Fund (NABARD) – Dedicated fund of to expand drip and sprinkler systems.

Atal Bhujal Yojana (Atal Jal) – Focus on groundwater management in water-stressed districts through community participation.

Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme (AIBP) – Financial assistance for completion of long-pending major and medium irrigation projects.

Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) by strengthening Water Users Associations (WUAs).

Bureau of Water Use Efficiency under Ministry of Jal Shakti – To improve water use efficiency by 20%

State level initiatives

Mission Kakatiya, Telangana – Restoration of 46,531 minor irrigation tanks

Jalyukt Shivar Abhiyan, Maharashtra – watershed development, farm ponds, desilting of streams.

Crop Diversification Initiatives

Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH)

Increase in MSP for Pulses and Millets. Eg- 60% for Ragi

PM KUSUM: Promotes the use of solar-powered pumps for micro-irrigation

Timely and efficient implementations of government programmes is essential for achieving equitable, efficient and sustainable irrigation management. (“Vision for Sujalam Bharat”)

Answer

Introduction: Briefly define the key concept in the question and set the context with a relevant fact, report or constitutional provision.

Body: Examine the issue across 3–4 dimensions — constitutional, political, administrative and social. Support each point with an example, a committee recommendation or a Supreme Court judgment.

Challenges: Highlight the main gaps or criticisms, with data where possible.

Way forward: Suggest practical, specific reforms drawn from expert committees and best practices.

Conclusion: Close with a balanced, forward-looking statement that links back to the question.

Land Reforms

Agriculture › Land Reforms

2024

Land reforms in India aimed to eliminate feudal structures, secure tenancy rights, redistribute surplus land, and modernise agrarian relations.

Components of land reforms

Abolition of Intermediaries

Tenancy Reforms

Ceiling on Land Holdings

Land Consolidation

Factors behind successful implementation of land reforms in some parts of the country

Strong Political Will and Ideological Commitment to land redistribution and tenancy reforms

Kerala – Communist government

West Bengal – Left Front

Decentralised and proactive bureaucracy, especially in West Bengal, where Block Development Offices played a central role in implementing Operation Barga.

Robust Panchayati Raj Institutions ensured identification of beneficiaries, resolution of disputes, and monitoring of redistribution.

Social Movements and Mass Mobilisation led by Kisan Sabhas, Bhoodan–Gramdan, and left-oriented peasant unions created strong grassroots pressure.

Clear and Unambiguous Land Legislation such as J&K’s Big Landed Estates Abolition Act, 1950 – faced fewer legal loopholes

States where landlord dominance in Governance was weaker (Kerala, West Bengal) had less resistance and fewer litigations compared to states like Bihar or UP.

Kerala’s high literacy enabled better awareness of legal rights and reduced manipulation by landlords.

Strong Monitoring – Periodic reviews, political oversight, and public reporting in TN ensured transparency and discouraged corruption or collusion with landowners.

Major Challenges

Land Reforms is ‘state subject’ – Lack of political will and uniformity in implementation

Legal loopholes – In Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Madras there was no limit on the size of the lands that could be declared to be under the ‘personal cultivation’ of the zamindar

Fragmented Landholdings – Average operational holding has fallen to 0.74 ha (NABARD), making consolidation challenging.

Inadequate Institutional Capacity – Revenue departments face deficits in manpower, technology, and coordination.

Despite legal provisions, women hold only 11-13% of operational holdings due to inheritance barriers.

High Land Litigation – Over two-thirds of civil cases in lower courts involve land disputes

Land reform 2.0 based on modernisation of records (DILRMP), redistribution of land and land leasing reforms is essential to realise the objective of ‘Doubling Farmers Income’.

Environment

Conservation Efforts

Answer

Introduction: Briefly define the key concept in the question and set the context with a relevant fact, report or constitutional provision.

Body: Examine the issue across 3–4 dimensions — constitutional, political, administrative and social. Support each point with an example, a committee recommendation or a Supreme Court judgment.

Challenges: Highlight the main gaps or criticisms, with data where possible.

Way forward: Suggest practical, specific reforms drawn from expert committees and best practices.

Conclusion: Close with a balanced, forward-looking statement that links back to the question.

Role of millets

Challenges

Way Forward

Demand-Side Strategies

Supply-Side Strategies

Buffer Stock Norms

Importance of Buffer Stocks for Stabilising Agricultural Prices in India

Challenges Associated with the Storage of Buffer Stock

Way Forward

Agriculture Marketing and supply chains

Major challenges faced by Indian Irrigation system

P – Political Factors

E – Economic Factors

S – Social Factors

T – Technological Factors

L – Legal / Governance Factors

E – Environmental Factors

Government Measures for Efficient Irrigation Management

Factors behind successful implementation of land reforms in some parts of the country

Conservation Efforts

Agriculture

Other questions

Role of millets

Challenges

Way Forward

Demand-Side Strategies

Supply-Side Strategies

Answer

Buffer Stock & Food Security

Buffer Stock Norms

Importance of Buffer Stocks for Stabilising Agricultural Prices in India

Challenges Associated with the Storage of Buffer Stock

Way Forward

Agriculture Marketing and supply chains

Answer

Irrigation

Major challenges faced by Indian Irrigation system

P – Political Factors

E – Economic Factors

S – Social Factors

T – Technological Factors

L – Legal / Governance Factors

E – Environmental Factors

Government Measures for Efficient Irrigation Management

Answer

Land Reforms

Factors behind successful implementation of land reforms in some parts of the country

Conservation Efforts

Answer