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Subject: Environment

  • NCDC flags study on rising antibiotic resistance in India

    Why In The News?

    The NCDC has rejected a Lancet study claiming that over 50% of Indian patients undergoing a specific gastrointestinal procedure are colonised with multidrug-resistant organisms (MDROs), calling the findings inaccurate.

    1) What is Antibiotic Resistance:

    • Definition: Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) occurs when microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites) become resistant to antimicrobial drugs such as antibiotics, antifungals, antivirals, antimalarials, and anthelmintics.
    • Impact on Treatment: Standard treatments become ineffective, leading to persistent infections that can spread to others.
    • Natural Phenomenon: Resistance develops naturally as bacteria evolve, reducing the effectiveness of drugs.
    • Superbugs: Microorganisms that develop AMR are often called “superbugs.”
    • Global Threat: The WHO identifies AMR as one of the top ten global health threats.

    2) Causes of Antibiotic Resistance:

    • High Disease Burden: A high prevalence of communicable diseases (tuberculosis, diarrhoea, respiratory infections) increases antimicrobial use.
    • Weak Public Health System: An overburdened health system limits diagnostic capacity, leading to improper treatment.
    • Poor Infection Control: Hygiene lapses in hospitals and clinics promote the spread of resistant bacteria.
    • Misuse of Antibiotics: Overprescription, self-medication, incomplete antibiotic courses, and unnecessary use of broad-spectrum antibiotics accelerate resistance.
    • Easy Access: Unregulated over-the-counter antibiotic availability increases inappropriate use.
    • Lack of Awareness: Low public awareness about AMR contributes to misuse of antibiotics.
    • Inadequate Surveillance: Limited monitoring systems hinder tracking and understanding of AMR spread.

    3) Implications of AMR:

    • Healthcare Impact: AMR makes previously effective antibiotics ineffective, causing prolonged illnesses, severe symptoms, and higher mortality from common infections such as pneumonia, UTIs, and skin infections.
    • Increased Healthcare Costs: Resistant infections require costlier drugs, longer hospital stays, and sometimes invasive procedures, raising expenses for patients, health systems, and governments.
    • Challenges in Medical Procedures: AMR increases risks in surgeries, chemotherapy, and organ transplants because infections may not respond to standard antibiotics.
    • Limitations in Treatment Options: Growing resistance reduces the availability of effective antibiotics, potentially creating a post-antibiotic era where common infections become untreatable and potentially fatal.

    4) About National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC):

    • Organizational Affiliation: NCDC functions under the Indian Directorate General of Health Services, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.
    • Purpose: Established as a national centre of excellence for the control of communicable diseases.
    • Leadership: The Director, an officer of the Public Health sub-cadre of Central Health Service, serves as the administrative and technical head of the institute.
    • Headquarters: Located in New Delhi.
    • Branches: NCDC has 8 regional branches at Alwar (Rajasthan), Bengaluru (Karnataka), Kozhikode (Kerala), Coonoor (Tamil Nadu), Jagdalpur (Chhattisgarh), Patna (Bihar), Rajahmundry (Andhra Pradesh), and Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh).
    [UPSC 2019] Which of the following are the reasons for the occurrence of multi-drug resistance in microbial pathogens in India?

    1. Genetic predisposition of some people

    2. Taking incorrect doses of antibiotics to cure diseases

    3. Using antibiotics in livestock farming

    4. Multiple chronic diseases in some people

    Select the correct answer using the code given below. Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4

     

  • SC allows CAQM to take ‘proactive’ measures to curb Delhi air pollution

    Why In The News?

    The Supreme Court allowed CAQM full freedom to take proactive anti-pollution measures in Delhi-NCR, including applying GRAP-IV options like work-from-home and 50% office attendance during the ongoing GRAP-III stage.

    About the Judgement:

    • Supreme Court’s Direction: SC empowered CAQM to take proactive pollution-control measures in Delhi-NCR.
    • Bench Observation: CJI Gavai urged stakeholder consultation.
    • Key Proposals: Early use of GRAP-IV measures, vehicle exemptions, staggered timings, and congestion control.
    • Additional Proposals: CAQM proposed advancing GRAP measures, enforcing congestion control, notifying vehicle aggregator policies, reviewing school sports during pollution months, and adopting long-term steps like EV policy review and higher charges on luxury diesel SUVs

    2) What is CAQM (Commission for Air Quality Management)?

    • About: A statutory body managing air quality in Delhi-NCR and adjoining areas, created under the CAQM Act, 2021, replacing the earlier EPCA (1998) and initially introduced via a 2020 ordinance.
    • Structure: Chairperson is a senior government official (Secretary/Chief Secretary); includes 5 ex-officio members from Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh; 3 full-time technical members; 3 NGO members; supported technically by CPCB, ISRO, and NITI Aayog.
    • Functions: Responsible for monitoring, coordinating, and implementing air quality policies, researching pollution sources, proposing mitigation strategies, and raising public awareness.
    • Powers: Holds jurisdiction over Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan; can issue binding directions, restrict polluting activities, enforce environmental rules, act against non-compliance, and initiate complaints under the CAQM Act, 2021.

    3) What is GRAP (Graded Response Action Plan)?

    • About: A pre-emptive and emergency framework to control Delhi-NCR air pollution; created under Supreme Court directions in C. Mehta vs Union of India (2016); notified in 2017 and implemented by CAQM, MoEFCC, and State authorities; operates through four graded stages linked to AQI levels.
    • Stages of GRAP:
      Stage I – Poor (AQI 201–300): Road dust control and enforcement of PUC norms.
      Stage II – Very Poor (AQI 301–400): Limits on diesel generators and actions in pollution hotspots.
      Stage III – Severe (AQI 401–450): Vehicle restrictions, construction curbs, and remote schooling
      Stage IV – Severe+ (AQI > 450): Ban on heavy vehicles, school closures, and shutdown of non-essential industries.
    • Purpose: To ensure a graded, coordinated, time-bound response that prevents air quality from escalating to hazardous levels.

    4)Air Quality Monitoring Measures:

    1) AQI (Air Quality Index)

    • Launched in 2014 with the concept “One Number – One Color – One Description” for easy public understanding.
    • Developed by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).
    • Based on 8 pollutants: PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3, Pb.
    • Contains six air quality categories ranging from Good to Severe.

    2) SAFAR (System of Air Quality and Weather Forecasting and Research)

    • Provides location-specific, real-time air quality information for major Indian metropolitan cities.
    • Introduced by the Ministry of Earth Sciences, developed by IITM Pune.
    • Measures pollutants: PM2.5, PM10, O3, CO, NOx, SO2, Benzene, Toluene, Xylene, Mercury.
    • Uses Continuous Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Systems (CAAQMS); an example includes the one commissioned by the Indian Army in Kolkata.

    3) NAAQS (National Ambient Air Quality Standards)

    • Set by CPCB in 2009 under the Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
    • Covers 12 pollutants, including SO2, NO2, PM10, PM2.5, O3, Pb, CO, NH3, Benzene, Benzopyrene, As, Ni.
    • Specifies annual and 24-hour standards for industrial, residential, rural, and ecologically sensitive areas.

    4) NAMP (National Air Quality Monitoring Programme)

    • Executed by CPCB to monitor ambient air quality across India.
    • Network includes 800+ stations in 344 cities/towns, covering 28 states and 6 UTs.
    • Objectives: track air quality trends, assess compliance with NAAQS, identify non-attainment cities.
    • Monitors SO2, NO2, PM10, and PM2.5 along with meteorological factors like wind speed, humidity, and temperature.

    5) WHO Ambient Air Quality Database

    • A global database compiling annual mean concentrations of PM2.5, PM10, and NO2.
    • First released in 2011; updated periodically—2023 is the sixth update.
    • Linked to WHO’s 2021 Global Air Quality Guidelines (AQGs), which tightened acceptable pollution limits.
    [UPSC 2022] In the context of WHO Air Quality Guidelines, consider the following statements:

    1. The 24-hour mean of PM 2.5 should not exceed 15 μg/m³ and annual mean of PM 2.5 should not exceed 5 μg/m³.

    2. In a year, the highest levels of ozone pollution occur during the periods of inclement weather.

    3. PM 10 can penetrate the lung barrier and enter the bloodstream.

    4. Excessive ozone in the air can trigger asthma.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    Options: (a) 1, 3 and 4 (b) 1 and 4 only* (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 2 only

  • [20th November 2025] The Hindu OpED: Hidden cost of polluted groundwater

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2024] The world is facing an acute shortage of clean and safe freshwater. What are the alternative technologies which can solve this crisis? Briefly discuss any three such technologies citing their key merits and demerits.

    Linkage: This PYQ is important for UPSC as freshwater scarcity and contamination are core GS-III themes. The article links directly by highlighting toxic groundwater, failing treatment systems, and the urgent need for affordable purification technologies.

    Mentor’s Comment

    Groundwater contamination in India is no longer a silent environmental issue, it has become an economic, social, and public-health emergency. This topic is highly relevant PYQ for UPSC, as water scarcity and groundwater contamination are recurring GS-III themes. The article directly aligns by showing how polluted aquifers and weak treatment systems make alternative purification technologies essential for India’s water security.

    Introduction

    Groundwater, the backbone of India’s drinking water and irrigation systems, is now increasingly polluted with heavy metals, industrial residues, and excess fertilizers. Reports from multiple states reveal a rise in fluoride, arsenic, uranium, and nitrate contamination, creating a public-health disaster and long-term economic losses. The issue has moved from isolated pockets to a nationwide development challenge demanding regulatory urgency, technological solutions, and sustainable water governance.

    Why in the News

    Recent rounds of India’s Groundwater Quality Report (2022) and field evidence from Punjab, Gujarat, Telangana, and Haryana indicate a sharp rise in toxic contamination, including fluoride-linked deformities, arsenic poisoning, and uranium beyond safe limits. The scale is unprecedented: nearly 600 million Indians rely on groundwater, and contamination is now accelerating due to over-extraction, fertilizer misuse, and industrial discharge. The crisis is no longer environmental, it is weakening agricultural incomes, burdening households with high medical costs, and threatening India’s export competitiveness.

    What Is Causing Groundwater to Become Toxic?

    1. Heavy Reliance on Groundwater
      • Over-extraction: Agriculture absorbs over 60% of India’s groundwater, exceeding sustainable limits in several districts.
      • Irrigation intensity: Canal systems have stagnated, forcing farmers to depend on tube wells.
      • Result: Declining water tables concentrate pollutants and accelerate toxicity.
    2. Chemical Contamination from Agriculture
      • Excess fertilizer and pesticide use: Leads to nitrate accumulation and leaching into aquifers.
      • Heavy metals: Arsenic, fluoride, uranium exceed permissible limits in many districts.
      • Impact: Childhood skeletal deformities, fluorosis, long-term organ damage.
    3. Industrial and Sewage Discharge
      • Untreated effluents: Lack of sewage treatment expands contamination beyond village boundaries.
      • Industrial residues: Agro-processing and manufacturing hubs increase heavy metal presence.
      • Outcome: Polluted aquifers affecting both rural and peri-urban areas.

    How Groundwater Pollution Impacts Health and Society

    1. Rising Health Burden
      • Skeletal deformities, fluorosis, kidney damage: Result of toxic metals in drinking water.
      • Children disproportionately affected: Early-life exposure lowers future productivity.
    2. Debt and Medical Expenditure
      • High out-of-pocket expense: Families spend heavily on hospital visits and bottled water.
      • Wealthier households cope better: Poorer families cannot afford alternative water sources.
    3. Intergenerational Impacts
      • Impaired cognitive development: Arsenic and fluoride exposure affects education outcomes.
      • Lower economic mobility: Chronic illness depresses earning capacity.

    How Groundwater Pollution Hurts Agriculture and the Economy

    1. Loss of Farm Productivity
      • Poor water quality reduces crop yields: Long-term exposure to contaminated irrigation water.
      • Heavy metals affect soil health: Reducing crop diversity and nutritional value.
    2. Threat to India’s Export Market
      • Buyers demand stringent quality checks: Contamination threatens rice, spices, fruits, vegetables.
      • The $50-60 billion agri-export sector risks losses due to toxicity and traceability issues.
    3. Vicious Cycle of Over-Extraction
      • Declining tables led to more drilling which leads to more contaminants: Increases farmer indebtedness.
      • High fertilizer use worsens soil chemistry: Further reduces sustainability.

    Why Policy Failure Allowed This Crisis to Escalate

    1. Weak Enforcement of Pollution Norms
      1. Inadequate regulation of industrial discharge: Leads to untreated sewage entering aquifers.
      2. Poor monitoring: Rural areas lack regular water quality surveillance.
    2. Lack of Decentralised Treatment Systems
      1. Dependence on centralized schemes: Community-level solutions not prioritized.
      2. Delayed response: Slow implementation of purification units.
    3. Limited Agricultural Diversification
      1. Punjab’s water-intensive cropping pattern: Maintains heavy groundwater stress.
      2. Minimal shift to millets/pulses despite policy incentives.

    Way Forward

    1. Nationwide Real-Time Groundwater Monitoring
      • Open access digital platform: Communities should know what they are drinking/using to irrigate.
      • Data-driven planning: Better targeting of polluted zones.
    2. Strengthen Industrial and Sewage Regulations
      • Strict enforcement of effluent norms: Prevent industrial leakages.
      • Expand sewage treatment infrastructure: Particularly in peri-urban zones.
    3. Agricultural Policy Reform
      • Shift away from water-intensive crops: Encourage pulses, maize, oilseeds.
      • Promote micro-irrigation: Reduce water table stress.
    4. Localised Water Purification
      • Community-level treatment plants: Immediate relief in severely contaminated areas.
      • Affordable household filtration for poor families.
    5. Long-Term Water Security Planning
      • Integrating health, agriculture, and environment: Holistic approach to water governance.
      • Prevent groundwater from becoming India’s next major economic crisis.

    Conclusion

    Groundwater contamination has transformed into a multidimensional crisis affecting public health, agriculture, exports, and intergenerational equity. Without strict regulation, real-time monitoring, and agricultural diversification, the economic and health losses will escalate. India must act decisively before the groundwater crisis becomes irreversible.

  • Asiatic Caracal spotted at Ramgarh in Rajasthan’s Jaisalmer

    Why in the News?

    The elusive Asiatic Caracal (Caracal caracal schmitzi) has been rediscovered at Ramgarh, Jaisalmer, reaffirming its survival in the Thar Desert after years of uncertainty.

    Asiatic Caracal spotted at Ramgarh in Rajasthan's Jaisalmer

    About Asiatic Caracal:

    • Scientific Name: Caracal caracal schmitzi, the Asiatic subspecies of the globally distributed caracal species.
    • Distribution: Native to Africa, Middle East, Central Asia, Pakistan, and historically across northwestern and central India, now restricted mainly to Rajasthan and Gujarat.
    • Indian Population: Fewer than 50 individuals survive in India, with small, fragmented groups in the Thar Desert, Ranthambhore landscape, and Kutch region.
    • Habitat: Prefers semi deserts, savannahs, scrublands, steppes, dry forests, and open arid terrains; uses grassland scrub mosaics for hunting and denning.
    • Ecology: A shy nocturnal mesopredator feeding on rodents, hares, birds, and occasionally small ungulates; known for vertical leaps up to 3 metres to strike flying prey.
    • Legal Protection: Listed in Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act 1972 and categorised as Least Concern globally but critically sparse within India.
    • Threats: Habitat loss from land conversion, solar parks, linear infrastructure, hunting, and misclassification of grasslands as wastelands reducing viable habitat.
    • Conservation Status in India: Included in the 2021 Species Recovery Plan by National Board for Wildlife (NBWL) and MoEFCC, with urgent need for grassland restoration, monitoring, and community based protection.
    [UPSC 2019] Question: Consider the following statements:

    1. Asiatic lion is naturally found In India only.

    2. Double-humped camel is naturally found in India only.

    3. One-horned rhinoceros is naturally found in India only.

    Which of the statements given above is / are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only* (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • [17th November 22] The Hindu Op-ed: Delhi’s air, a ‘wicked problem’ in need of bold solutions

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2021] Describe the key points of the revised Global Air Quality Guidelines (AQGs) recently released by the WHO. How are these different from its last update in 2005? What changes in India’s National Clean Air Programme are required to achieve these revised standards?

    Linkage: This PYQ directly links to Delhi’s recurring “severe” AQI episodes and the article’s emphasis on PM2.5 toxicity, life-expectancy loss, and structural regulatory failure. It is relevant because achieving WHO’s revised AQGs requires stronger, coordinated, long-term reforms, precisely what the article argues India’s NCAP currently lacks.

    Mentor’s Comment

    Delhi’s air crisis has again reached “public health emergency” levels, revealing the chronic and structural nature of India’s most persistent environmental challenge. This article breaks down Dr. Shashi Tharoor’s analysis of Delhi’s air pollution as a “wicked problem,” expands it with UPSC-relevant framing, and provides a structured, exam-oriented guide with value additions, PYQs, micro-themes, and practice questions.

    Introduction

    Delhi’s annual winter pollution has evolved from a seasonal inconvenience into a chronic public health emergency. Air Quality Index (AQI) levels routinely breach the 400+ “severe” category, shortening life expectancy by up to 10 years in highly exposed regions. The article argues that Delhi’s air crisis is a “wicked problem”, a complex mix of geographical, meteorological, and man-made factors requiring bold, holistic, and long-term solutions.

    Why in the News 

    Delhi’s air quality has once again plunged into the “severe” category post-Diwali, with AQI values exceeding 400 and triggering health alarms across NCR. What is striking is the persistence: for over a decade, seasonal pollution spikes have recurred despite policies, committees, bans, and monitoring systems. The article highlights the worsening public health impact, including a 10-year reduction in life expectancy, and shows that despite years of institutional attention, the crisis remains structurally unchanged, making this year’s episode another stark reminder of policy failure.

    Delhi’s Air Pollution as a Wicked Problem

    1. Complex Interactions: Combines geographical, meteorological, and human-made factors.
    2. Valley-like Topography: Delhi is landlocked with restricted air flow.
    3. Temperature Inversions: Trap pollutants close to the ground in winter.
    4. No Single Villain: Emissions arise from vehicles, industries, agriculture, construction, and households simultaneously.

    What Makes the Crisis Structurally Persistent?

    1. Chronic Health Emergency: PM2.5 toxicity linked to asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), strokes, cancers, anxiety, depression, and DNA damage.
    2. Reduced Life Expectancy: Exposure reduces life expectancy by up to 10 years in consistently high-PM areas.
    3. Population Movement: People relocate away from Delhi despite career opportunities due to health concerns.
    4. Elderly & Children at Risk: Respiratory illnesses sharply rise during winter.

    Why Are the Existing Measures Not Working?

    1. Weak Enforcement: BS-VI vehicles, dust-control norms, and industrial regulations remain poorly enforced.
    2. Rapid Urbanisation: Construction adds 27% of PM emissions; monitoring is patchy.
    3. Outdated Technology: Many industries in NCR still use old boilers and furnaces.
    4. Vehicular Emissions Rising: Over 3 crore vehicles in NCR; old diesel vehicles persist.

    Who Are the Major Contributors Highlighted in the Article?

    1. Stubble Burning: Seasonal crop residue burning in Punjab & Haryana adds massive smoke plumes.
    2. Firecrackers: Diwali and wedding fireworks spike PM levels.
    3. Waste Burning: Municipal waste, rubber, and plastic burning persists due to weak surveillance.
    4. Industries: Brick kilns, factories, and outdated machinery emit sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and PM.

    Structural Reforms Advocated to Address the Air Pollution Crisis

    1. System-wide Pollution Control Plan: Not piece-meal bans; requires unified regional strategy.
    2. Relocating Polluting Industries: Move red-category industries away from dense areas.
    3. Urban Design Changes: Create green lungs, redesign mobility, and improve public transport.
    4. Electric Mobility Transition: Incentivise EV adoption and shared mobility.
    5. Agricultural Alternatives: Support farmers with smoke-free residue management.
    6. Firecracker Alternatives: Scale up “green crackers”; enforce bans with political will.

    Conclusion

    Delhi’s air pollution demands collective regional action, technological upgrade, and political resolve. Seasonal, reactive measures have repeatedly failed; the crisis is structural and chronic. Treating it as a “wicked problem” requires system-wide transformation in transport, agriculture, industry, and governance, with long-term investment in cleaner technologies and behavioural change. The window for incrementalism has closed.

  • Researchers to study rare Dolphin-Fisher kinship in Ashtamudi Lake

    Why in the News?

    In Ashtamudi Lake, Kerala, artisanal fishers and Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins (Sousa plumbea) engage in a rare and sophisticated form of human–wildlife cooperative hunting.

    Researchers to study rare Dolphin-Fisher kinship in Ashtamudi Lake

    Unique Dolphin-Fisher in Ashtamudi Lake:

    • Cooperative Hunting: Dolphins herd fish towards artisanal fishers standing in shallow water.
    • Signals: Dolphins give tail-slaps or rolls to signal fishers to cast nets.
    • Mutual Benefit: Fishers get high catches; dolphins feed on escaping fish, forming a rare human–wildlife cooperation system.
    • Documentation: First studied by University of Kerala researchers; Similar systems studied in Brazil and Myanmar.
    • Expected Outcomes: Insights into animal culture, evolution of cooperation, and improved sustainable fishing practices.

    About Indo-Pacific Humpback Dolphins (Sousa plumbea):

    • Distribution: Found from East Africa to India, the Middle East and western Indochina, with major populations along India’s west coast.
    • Appearance: Identified by a large hump under the dorsal fin, dark grey plumbeous body, white mottling, and occasional pink shading; adults grow up to 2.8 m, newborns 97–108 cm.
    • Identification Traits: Long slender beak, dorsal fin perched on a mid-back hump, adults darken with age and often show shark-related scars.
    • Habitat: Prefer shallow waters (<20 m) within 1.5 km of shore; commonly near estuaries, river mouths, bays and nearshore fish concentrations.
    • Group Behaviour: Groups of 50–100 reported in India; shy but often seen during dolphin-watching trips.
    • Diet: Feed mainly on mullet, mackerel, sardines, pomfret and other schooling fish; sometimes exploit fishing nets, increasing entanglement risk.
    • Conservation Status: Vulnerable (IUCN), Appendix I (CITES), NOT LISTED under India’s Wildlife Protection Act (only Ganges and Snubfin dolphins are listed).
    • Colour Variation: Pinkish tint comes from superficial blood vessels used for thermoregulation; calves are dark grey.

    Researchers to study rare Dolphin-Fisher kinship in Ashtamudi Lake

    About Ashtamudi Lake:

    • Location: A brackish estuarine lake in Kerala covering 5,700 hectares; designated a Ramsar Site (2002).
    • Name Origin: “Ashtamudi” refers to its eight channels, forming a gateway to the Kerala backwaters.
    • Hydrology: Fed mainly by the Kallada River; empties into the Arabian Sea via Neendakara estuary.
    • History: Once the ancient port of Quilon mentioned by Ibn Battuta.
    • Flora: Mangroves include Avicennia officinalis, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Sonneratia caseolaris; region hosts rare plants like Syzygium travancoricum and Calamus rotang.
    • Fauna: Supports 57 bird species (6 migratory, 51 resident).
    • Sustainable Fishery: Home to India’s first MSC-certified clam fishery (2014).
    • Livelihood & Ecology: Vital for traditional fisheries, estuarine biodiversity, and local livelihood systems.
    [UPSC 2012] Which one of the following is not a lagoon?

    Options: (a) Ashtamudi lake (b) Chilka lake (c) Preiyar lake * (d) Pulicat lake

     

  • India’s CO₂ Emission Trends as per Global Carbon Budget, 2025

    ​Why in the News?

    The Global Carbon Budget 2025 shows India’s fossil fuel emissions barely rising (3.19 to 3.22 billion tonnes) with growth slowing to 1.4 per cent, hinting at early stabilisation.

    India’s CO₂ Emission Trends:

    • Annual Growth: Fossil fuel CO₂ emissions rose from 3.19 billion tonnes (2024) to 3.22 billion tonnes (2025) a 1.4% increase, significantly slower than the 4% rise seen in 2024.
    • Decadal Trend: Average annual growth fell to 3.6% (2015–2024) from 6.4% (2005–2014), indicating efficiency gains and rapid renewable energy deployment.
    • Sectoral Profile: Roughly 90% of emissions originate from power generation, transport, industry, and buildings; 10% from land-use factors like deforestation.
    • Drivers of 2025 Slowdown: An early monsoon in 2024 reduced electricity demand for cooling; renewable energy growth reduced reliance on coal.
    • Electricity Sector Shift: CREA reported that India’s power-sector CO₂ emissions declined in early 2025 for the first time, due to strong solar and wind generation.
    • Global Context: India is the third-largest CO₂ emitter, yet its per capita emissions (~2.3 tonnes) remain far below the global average and major emitters like the U.S. (14.4 t) and China (8.7 t).
    • Outlook: Global fossil CO₂ emissions expected to rise 1.1% to 38.1 Gt, with total emissions (including land use) stabilising near 42 Gt.

    India’s CO₂ Emission Trends as per Global Carbon Budget, 2025

    What is the Global Carbon Budget?

    • Overview: It is an annual scientific assessment by Global Carbon Project (GCP) that quantifies global CO₂ sources and sinks across fossil fuels, land use, and oceans, forming the most authoritative dataset on global carbon trends.
    • GCP Origins: Established in 2001 under Future Earth and the World Climate Research Programme as a global consortium of climate scientists.
    • Mandate: To measure, monitor, and explain the global carbon cycle and its influence on the climate system.
    • Purpose of the Global Carbon Budget:
      • Quantifies CO₂ sources and sinks globally.
      • Tracks emission trends, carbon sequestration, and atmospheric CO₂ levels.
      • Provides authoritative data for COP negotiations and national climate assessments.
    • Scope and Methodology
      • Covers CO₂, methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O) using global datasets.
      • Combines national inventories, satellite data, and earth system models.
      • Uses the Global Carbon Atlas to visualise national and sector-wise emissions.
    • Significance:
      • Produces transparent, peer-reviewed carbon accounting.
      • Helps evaluate national performance under Paris Agreement targets.
      • Supports policy design on energy transition, carbon removal, and land use.
    • Key Collaborations: Works with major climate bodies including: IPCC, UNFCCC, WMO.
    [UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:

    I. Carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions in India are less than 0.5 t CO2/capita.

    II. In terms of CO2 emissions from fuel combustion, India ranks second in Asia-Pacific region.

    III. Electricity and heat producers are the largest sources of CO2 emissions in India.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) I and III only (b) II only (c) II and III only * (d) I, II and III

     

  • Supreme Court reserves verdict on defining Aravalli Hills and Ranges

    Why in the News?

    The Supreme Court has reserved its verdict on the definition of the Aravalli Hills and Ranges, a critical environmental issue impacting Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Gujarat.

    About the Aravallis:

    • Geology: The Aravalli Range is one of the oldest fold mountain ranges in the world, formed during the Proterozoic era.
    • Spread: It stretches for about 692 km, from Gujarat to Delhi, passing through Rajasthan and Haryana.
    • State-Wise Coverage: Around 80% of the range lies in Rajasthan, with the rest spread across Haryana, Delhi, and Gujarat.
    • Highest Peak: The tallest point is Guru Shikhar in Mount Abu, Rajasthan, with an elevation of 1,722 meters.
    • Natural Barrier Function: Acts as a green wall, preventing the spread of the Thar Desert into eastern Rajasthan and the Gangetic plains.
    • River Origins: Important rivers such as the Banas, Sahibi and Luni originate from the Aravallis.
    • Minerals: Rich in minerals like copper, zinc, lead, and marble.
    • Biodiversity: Home to 300+ bird species and key wildlife such as leopards, hyenas, jackals, wolves, civets, and Nilgai.
    • Prehistoric Significance: Contains cave art and tools from the Lower Palaeolithic period.

    About the Aravalli Case: Quick Backgrounder

    • Supreme Court Review: The Court is deciding on a uniform, legally enforceable definition of the Aravalli Hills and Ranges across Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Gujarat.
    • Case Origin: Stems from the long-running M.C. Mehta vs Union of India (2008) matter on illegal mining, encroachment, and ecological degradation in the Aravallis.
    • Judgment: The Court held Aravalli lands to be forest areas under the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, restricting non-forest activities.
    • Existing Legal Protection: Notifications under the Punjab Land Preservation Act, 1900 were upheld for safeguarding ecologically sensitive land.
    • Expert Committee (2024): SC directed MoEF&CC to set up a panel to develop a scientific definition for consistent protection across states.

    Proposed Legal Definitions of Aravalli Hills and Ranges

    (more…)

  • Climate Risk Index (CRI) 2026

    Why in the News?

    A new German watch report, ‘Climate Risk Index 2026’, reveals worldwide extreme weather claimed over 8lakh lives between 1995-2024.

    About the Climate Risk Index (CRI), 2026:

    • Publisher: Released annually by Germanwatch to rank countries based on the real, observed human and economic impacts of extreme weather events.
    • Focus: Measures actual climate impacts, not projections- making it a grounded vulnerability assessment.
    • Data Sources: Uses EM-DAT disaster database along with World Bank and IMF datasets.
    • Hazards Covered: Includes hydrological, meteorological, and climatological events.
    • 6 Indicators under 3 metrics: Fatalities (absolute and per 100,000 population), number of people affected (absolute and relative), economic losses in US$ (absolute and relative).
    • Objective: Highlights climate vulnerability, informs adaptation priorities, and supports global climate finance and policy debates.

    India’s Position in CRI 2026:

    • Long-term Rank: 9th most affected globally (1995–2024).
    • Annual Rank 2024: 15th, showing continued high exposure.
    • Event Frequency: Faced ~430 extreme weather events in three decades.
    • Impact: Over 80,000 deaths, 1.3 billion people affected, and USD 170 billion in economic losses.
    • Risk Profile: Classified as a “continuous threat” country due to repeated floods, cyclones, and heatwaves.
    • Global Negotiations: Bolsters India’s demand for Loss & Damage finance under UNFCCC processes.

    Global Findings: CRI 2026

    • Coverage: Assesses trends for 1995–2024 plus a separate deep-dive for 2024.
    • Overall Impact: More than 832,000 deaths and USD 4.5 trillion in losses from over 9,700 extreme events since 1995.
    • Event Trends:
      • Heatwaves and storms caused the highest deaths.
      • Floods affected the most people.
      • Storms led to the largest economic losses.
    • Worst-affected (1995–2024): Dominica, Myanmar, Honduras.
    • Worst-affected in 2024: St. Vincent & the Grenadines, Grenada, Chad.
    • Pattern: Disproportionate burden on Global South, especially SIDS and low-income countries.
    • Risk Types Identified:
      • States hit by one major catastrophic event.
      • States facing multiple recurring shocks without recovery time.
    • Takeaway: Underscores urgent need for adaptation, resilience, and Loss & Damage mechanisms.

  • India recorded the highest GHGs emissions for 2024

    Why in the News?

    The United Nations Environment Programme’s (UNEP) 2024 Emission Gap Report (“Off Target”) released before COP30, says India saw the world’s largest rise in greenhouse gas emissions in 2024, adding 165 MtCO₂e.

    India recorded the highest GHGs emissions for 2024

    About the Emission Gap Report:

    • Overview: It is an annual flagship publication by UNEP that measures the gap between current national emission pledges (NDCs) and the cuts required to meet the Paris Agreement goals of limiting global warming to 1.5°C or 2°C.
    • Purpose: Evaluates global progress, national commitments, and policy effectiveness, recommending actions to close the “emissions gap.”
    • Scope: Assesses emissions from energy, land use, and industry, comparing policy trajectories with required emission reduction pathways.

    Key highlights of the 2024 Edition- “Off Target”:

    • Core Message: Warns that the world remains far off track to achieve the 1.5°C limit.
    • Global Emissions: Hit a record 57.7 gigatonnes CO₂ equivalent (GtCO₂e) in 2024, a 2.3% rise from 2023.
    • Warming Projections:
      • Current policies → ~2.8°C by 2100.
      • Full NDC implementation → only 2.3–2.5°C limit.
    • G20 Role: Account for 77% of global emissions, led by China, USA, India, EU, Russia, and Indonesia.
    • NDC Submission: Only 64 countries (63% of global emissions) updated their NDCs by 2024; most G20 nations off-track for 2030–2035 goals.
    • Sectoral Breakdown:
      • Fossil fuels – 69% of total emissions.
      • Methane – 16%.
      • Land-use change – significant share of increase.
    • Temperature Outlook: Predicts a temporary overshoot of 1.5°C by the early 2030s without rapid global action.

    India-Specific Findings:

    • Emission Growth: India saw the largest absolute rise in 2024, +165 MtCO₂e, the world’s highest single-country increase.
    • Growth Rate: 3.6%, second only to Indonesia (4.6%).
    • Per Capita Emissions: 3 tCO₂e, less than half the global average (6.4 tCO₂e).
    • Global Ranking: 3rd-largest emitter, after China and the USA.
    • NDC Commitments: Aims to reduce emission intensity by 45% (2005–2030) and achieve 50% non-fossil energy capacity by 2030.
    • Progress: Overachieved by 15% on emission intensity but has not submitted an updated 2025 NDC.
    • COP30 Outlook: India’s rapid emission rise and missed NDC update may invite scrutiny, though low per capita emissions and developmental equity support its climate position.
    [UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:
    I. Carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions in India are less than 0.5 t CO2/capita.
    II. In terms of CO2 emissions from fuel combustion, India ranks second in Asia-Pacific region.
    III. Electricity and heat producers are the largest sources of CO2 emissions in India.
    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
    (a) I and III only (b) II only (c) II and III only * (d) I, II and III