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Subject: Environment

  • Over 1,000 species of Fungi threatened with extinction: IUCN

    Why in the News?

    The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List now includes 1,300 fungi species, of which 1000 species are at risk of extinction due to various environmental pressures.

    Important Species under Threat:

    • Fibrous Waxcap (Hygrocybe intermedia): A Vulnerable species of fungi found in Europe, facing threats from habitat loss and land-use changes.
    • 279 Species at Risk: Threatened by deforestation, agricultural expansion, and urban development, leading to habitat loss.
    • 91 Species Threatened by Pollution: Nitrogen and ammonia runoff from fertilizers and industrial activities.
    • 50+ Species at Risk Due to Fire Patterns: Changes in fire cycles, especially in USA, making certain fungi species vulnerable in forest ecosystems.

    About Fungi:

    • Fungi belong to the kingdom Fungi, distinct from animals, plants, and bacteria. They are eukaryotic organisms and include moulds, yeasts, mushrooms, and mildews.
    • Key Properties:
      • Fungi have chitin in their cell walls and form hyphae that create a mycelium network.
      • They are heterotrophic, absorbing nutrients from organic material.
      • They reproduce sexually and asexually through spores.
    • Types of Fungi:
      • Molds: Multicellular, fuzzy fungi.
      • Yeasts: Unicellular fungi used in fermentation.
      • Mushrooms: Fruiting bodies of certain fungi, often edible.
    • Ecological Role: Fungi are crucial in decomposition and nutrient cycling. Some form beneficial relationships with plants (mycorrhizae) to aid in nutrient absorption.
    • Uses:
      • Medicines: Fungi like penicillin have revolutionized medicine.
      • Food: Edible fungi include mushrooms and truffles.
      • Beverages: Yeasts are key in bread, beer, and wine production.
    [UPSC 2021] Which of the following have species that can establish symbiotic relationship with other organisms?​

    1. Cnidarians​

    2. Fungi ​

    3. Protozoa​

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Massive Earthquake hits Myanmar and Thailand

    Why in the News?

    A powerful 7.7 magnitude earthquake struck Myanmar, with its epicentre near Mandalay, the country’s second-largest city.

    Massive Earthquake hits Myanmar and Thailand

    What caused the Earthquake in Myanmar?

    • Myanmar is situated between the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate, which makes the region seismically active.
      • The Sagaing Fault, running from north to south through Myanmar, marks the boundary of these plates.
      • It is an active fault line that has caused significant earthquakes in the past, including a 7.9 magnitude earthquake in 1912 and a 6.9 magnitude earthquake in 2016.
    • The Indian Plate was moving northward along the Sagaing Fault relative to the Eurasian Plate. The friction and stress built up along this fault led to a sudden release of energy, resulting in the earthquake.
    • The earthquake’s epicentres was located 17.2 km from Mandalay, Myanmar’s second-largest city, at a depth of just 10 km.

    Why are Shallow Earthquakes more destructive?

    • Proximity to the Surface: Shallow earthquakes (less than 70 km deep) cause intense shaking. For example, the Myanmar earthquake occurred at 10 km, leading to rapid, forceful seismic waves and extensive damage.
    • Energy Release: Shallow earthquakes retain more energy in seismic waves, causing stronger surface shaking and greater destruction.
    • Higher Intensity: Shallow quakes produce higher intensity shaking, resulting in more structural damage compared to deeper quakes, where seismic waves lose energy.
    • Aftershocks: Shallow earthquakes often lead to more intense aftershocks, further damaging already weakened structures. The Myanmar earthquake had aftershocks, including one with magnitude 6.4.

    Back2Basics: Earthquake and Related Terminologies

    • Earthquake is a sudden shaking of the ground caused by energy release from tectonic plate movements or volcanic activity, generating seismic waves.
    • Key Terminologies:
      • Focus (Hypocenter): The point inside the Earth where the earthquake originates, deep beneath the surface.
      • Epicenter: The point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus, usually the most affected area.
      • Seismic Waves: Waves that carry the energy released during an earthquake and cause ground shaking.
      • Fault: A crack or fracture in the Earth’s crust where movement occurs, often causing earthquakes.
      • Magnitude: A measure of the earthquake’s size or energy, commonly measured on the Richter scale.
      • Intensity: The strength of shaking at specific locations, measured by the Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) scale.

    Types of Earthquake Waves:

    • Body Waves: Travel through the Earth’s interior, detected first by seismographs.
      • Primary Waves (P-Waves): Fastest, compression waves that move through solids and liquids.
      • Secondary Waves (S-Waves): Shear waves, slower than P-waves, that move through solids only.
    • Surface Waves: Travel along the Earth’s surface, slower but cause more damage.
      • Love Waves: Move side-to-side horizontally, causing significant damage.
      • Rayleigh Waves: Cause elliptical ground motion, similar to ocean waves, very destructive.

     

    [UPSC 2021] Consider the following statements:

    1. In a seismograph, P waves are recorded earlier than S waves.

    2. In P waves, the individual particles vibrate to and fro in the direction of waves propagation whereas in S waves, the particles vibrate up and down at right angles to the direction of wave propagation.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

  • [25th March 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: As ice frozen for millennia thaws, Kashmir wakes up to new risks 

    PYQ Relevance:

    Question: How does the melting of the Arctic ice and glaciers of the Antarctic differently affect the weather patterns and human activities on the Earth? Explain. (UPSC 2021)

    Reason:  It addresses the broader impact of melting ice on weather patterns and human activities, a theme relevant to the permafrost thaw in the Himalayas.

     

    Mentor’s Comment: UPSC mains usually focus on the melting of the Arctic ice and glaciers (2021) and the melting of Himalayan glaciers in 2020.

    Permafrost, frozen for millennia, is now thawing due to global warming, releasing stored carbon, including methane, a potent greenhouse gas, leading to severe climatic and ecological consequences. It’s  melting poses a growing environmental threat in the Kashmir Himalayas, endangering 193 km of roads, 2,415 households, 903 alpine lakes, and eight hydropower projects. 

    Today’s editorial discusses melting permafrost and its impacts, which is relevant for GS Paper 3 in the UPSC Mains exam.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    A study by researchers from the University of Kashmir and IIT-Bombay, published in Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment, found that permafrost covers 64.8% of J&K and Ladakh in different forms.

    What is Permafrost?

    Permafrost is ground—comprising soil, rock, or sediment—that remains continuously frozen for at least two years. It is found in high-altitude and polar regions, stores carbon, and supports unique ecosystems. However, rising global temperatures are causing it to thaw, leading to infrastructure damage, greenhouse gas emissions, and environmental disruptions.

    What are the major environmental and infrastructural challenges associated with permafrost melting in the Kashmir Himalayas?

    • Increased Risk of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs): Thawing permafrost destabilizes moraines, increasing the likelihood of sudden lake outbursts. Example: The South Lhonak Lake outburst in Sikkim (October 2023) and the Chamoli disaster in Uttarakhand (February 2021).
    • Damage to Roads and Infrastructure: Melting permafrost weakens the ground, causing landslides and road subsidence, disrupting connectivity. Example: Strategic roads in Ladakh, crucial for military operations, are at risk due to thaw-induced ground instability.
    • Threat to Hydropower Projects: Permafrost degradation affects water availability and increases sediment flow, damaging dams and power plants. Example: 8 hydropower projects in J&K and Ladakh are vulnerable to thaw-induced landslides and reduced water flow.
    • Loss of Permafrost-Dependent Ecosystems: Thawing disrupts alpine ecosystems, affecting vegetation, wildlife, and water cycles. Example: Decline of cold-adapted species and changing river flow patterns impacting local biodiversity.
    • Release of Greenhouse Gases: Thawing permafrost releases methane, a potent greenhouse gas, accelerating climate change. Example: Increased methane emissions in permafrost-rich Ladakh contribute to global warming.

    Where is permafrost most extensively found in Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh?

    • Ladakh Plateau & Karakoram Range: Cold-arid climate with high-altitude plateaus and glaciated mountains supports extensive permafrost. Example: Nubra Valley and Changthang Plateau have widespread permafrost due to sub-zero temperatures year-round.
    • Drass & Zanskar Region: Known as the “Gateway to Ladakh,” Drass is one of the coldest inhabited places in India. Example: Drass (often recording temperatures below -30°C) and Zanskar Valley exhibit permafrost in high-altitude zones.
    • Upper Indus River Basin: The cold, high-altitude valleys along the Indus River, particularly in the Leh region, have significant permafrost. Example: Permafrost is found in areas along the Indus near Leh, impacting groundwater storage and hydrology.
    • Siachen Glacier & Surrounding Areas: One of the highest and coldest battlefields in the world, sustaining year-round permafrost. Example: Permafrost is critical in maintaining the stability of the Siachen Glacier and surrounding military outposts.
    • Higher Reaches of Kargil: Some parts of Kargil, particularly in remote high-altitude areas, experience permafrost conditions. Example: Permafrost is found in higher elevations of Kargil, but lower valleys may lack continuous permafrost.

    Which regions lack permafrost coverage?

    • Kashmir Valley (Srinagar, Anantnag, Baramulla): Relatively lower altitude with temperate climate prevents permafrost formation. Example: Srinagar, despite cold winters, does not have permafrost due to warmer summer temperatures.
    • Jammu Region (Jammu, Udhampur, Kathua): Lower altitude and subtropical climate make permafrost formation impossible. Example: Jammu city has hot summers and mild winters, ruling out any permafrost presence.
    • Pir Panjal Range: Lower altitude than the Greater Himalayas, experiencing seasonal snow rather than permanent permafrost. Example: Gulmarg and Poonch receive heavy snowfall but do not sustain permafrost.
    • Chenab and Jhelum River Valleys: Warmer valley temperatures prevent permafrost formation, though higher peaks may have seasonal ice. Example: Areas like Pahalgam and Kupwara experience snow cover but lack permafrost due to fluctuating temperatures.
    • Lower Altitudes of Kargil and Leh: While upper reaches have permafrost, lower valleys experience enough summer warmth to prevent it. Example: Kargil town itself does not have permafrost, but surrounding mountains do.

    What are the causes of the thawing of permafrost?

    • Rising Global Temperatures (Climate Change): Increased greenhouse gas emissions lead to higher atmospheric temperatures, accelerating permafrost thaw. Example: In Ladakh, rising temperatures have led to permafrost degradation in the Changthang Plateau, impacting traditional grazing lands.
    • Infrastructure Development & Human Activities: Roads, buildings, and military installations generate heat, disrupting the thermal balance of permafrost. Example: The construction of roads like the Zojila Tunnel and military bases in Siachen has contributed to localized permafrost thaw.
    • Reduced Snow Cover & Glacial Retreat: Snow acts as an insulating layer, preventing permafrost from direct exposure to warming air. Reduced snowfall accelerates melting. Example: The retreat of glaciers in Zanskar Valley has exposed underlying permafrost to warmer temperatures, leading to faster thawing.
    • Increased Rainfall & Changing Precipitation Patterns: More rainfall instead of snowfall leads to surface warming, infiltrating the soil and speeding up permafrost thaw. Example: Parts of Drass have seen changing precipitation patterns, where more rain in summer accelerates permafrost degradation.
    • Forest Fires & Loss of Vegetation Cover: Vegetation helps insulate the ground; its loss due to deforestation or fires exposes permafrost to direct heat. Example: In Ladakh, overgrazing by livestock in Changthang Wildlife Sanctuary has led to soil erosion, increasing permafrost vulnerability.

    What are the steps taken by the government? 

    • Monitoring and Research Initiatives: The Indian government, in collaboration with research institutions like the Defence Geoinformatics Research Establishment (DGRE) and Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology (WIHG), is conducting studies on permafrost dynamics in Ladakh and Jammu & Kashmir. Example: DGRE has set up monitoring stations in Drass, Kargil, and Siachen to study permafrost stability and assess risks to infrastructure.
    • Climate Resilient Infrastructure Development: The Border Roads Organisation (BRO) is adopting new engineering techniques, such as thermosyphons and insulated road layers, to prevent permafrost degradation in road and tunnel construction. Example: In the construction of the Zojila Tunnel, special insulation techniques are being used to minimize heat impact on permafrost.
    • Afforestation and Sustainable Land Management: Programs under CAMPA (Compensatory Afforestation Management and Planning Authority) and National Mission on Himalayan Studies (NMHS) aim to restore vegetation cover, which helps maintain permafrost stability. Example: Reforestation efforts in Changthang Wildlife Sanctuary and Ladakh’s high-altitude areas help in reducing soil erosion and insulating the permafrost layer.

    Way forward: 

    • Integrating Climate-Resilient Infrastructure Planning: Adopt permafrost-friendly construction techniques, such as thermosyphons and passive cooling methods, in strategic roads, hydropower projects, and military installations to minimize thawing-related damage.
    • Strengthening Monitoring and Adaptive Strategies: Expand permafrost monitoring networks, enhance research on thaw impacts, and implement community-based adaptation measures, such as sustainable grazing and afforestation, to mitigate long-term environmental risks.

  • Colossal wastage that is food for thought

    Why in the News?

    The UNEP’s Food Waste Index Report 2024 shows that 1.05 billion tonnes of food were wasted in 2022, about 20% of the world’s food. India is a major contributor, making this a serious environmental and ethical issue.

    What are the key differences between food waste and food loss as per the Food Waste Index Report (FWIR) 2024?

    • Food Waste: It includes both edible and inedible parts discarded at the consumer and retail levels (households, restaurants, supermarkets, etc.). It happens due to over-purchasing, poor storage, and cultural habits of excess food preparation.
    • Food Loss: It occurs earlier in the supply chain (from production to retail) due to inadequate storage, transportation, handling, and infrastructure failures.

    Why does the food waste in India pose a significant environmental and social challenge? 

    • Worsens Hunger and Food Insecurity: Despite being a major food producer, over 20 crore Indians go to bed hungry while 78 million tonnes of food are wasted annually. Example: Tons of edible surplus food from weddings and restaurants are discarded instead of being redistributed to the needy.
    • Increases Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Food waste in landfills decomposes and releases methane, a greenhouse gas 25 times more potent than CO₂. Example: India’s food waste contributes 10%-12% of total municipal waste, significantly impacting climate change.
    • Wastage of Natural Resources: Food production requires land, water, and energy. Wasting food means wasting these scarce resources. Example: It takes 1,800 liters of water to produce just 1 kg of rice—if wasted, all that water is also wasted.
    • Economic Loss and Financial Burden: Wasting food leads to huge financial losses for households, businesses, and the economy. Example: Retailers discard unsold perishable foods like dairy and fruits due to short shelf life, leading to billions of rupees in losses annually.
    • Aggravates Climate Change and Natural Disasters: Increased food demand due to waste leads to deforestation, soil degradation, and excessive water usage, worsening environmental crises. Example: Rising extreme weather events (droughts, floods) impact crop production, making food security more vulnerable.

    Where in the food supply chain do inefficiencies lead to high levels of food wastage in India? 

    • Post-Harvest Losses (Farm Level): Poor harvesting techniques and lack of proper drying/storage cause significant losses. Example: Grains left in open fields get damaged by rain, pests, or rodents due to inadequate storage facilities.
    • Storage and Transportation Issues: Inadequate cold storage and poor transportation infrastructure lead to spoilage, especially for perishable goods. Example: Fruits and vegetables rot in transit due to a lack of refrigerated trucks, particularly in rural areas.
    • Retail and Market-Level Losses: Supermarkets and local markets discard unsold food due to short shelf life, improper handling, and strict quality standards. Example: Bruised or oddly shaped vegetables and fruits are rejected and thrown away by vendors, even if they are edible.
    • Household-Level Waste: Over-purchasing, improper meal planning, and poor storage lead to significant food waste in homes. Example: Families discard leftovers or expired groceries because they were not consumed in time.
    • Food Service Industry (Hotels, Restaurants, and Caterers): Large-scale food preparation for events, hotels, and restaurants results in excess food being thrown away. Example: Buffet-style dining in weddings and hotels often leads to tons of uneaten food being discarded instead of redistributed.

    What are the steps taken by the Indian Government? 

    • “Save Food, Share Food” Initiative: A program launched to redistribute surplus food from individuals, businesses, and organizations to the needy. Example: Collaboration with NGOs and food banks ensures excess food from weddings, hotels, and events is shared rather than wasted.
    • Strengthening Cold Storage and Supply Chain Infrastructure: Investment in cold storage facilities and refrigerated transport to reduce post-harvest losses. Example: The Pradhan Mantri Kisan SAMPADA Yojana supports food processing industries to improve storage and preservation.
    • Amendments in Food Safety and Standards Regulations: The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) encourages supermarkets and restaurants to donate surplus food instead of discarding it.Example: The Food Sharing Guidelines (2019) enable food redistribution through certified food banks and NGOs.
    • Awareness Campaigns and Behavioral Change Initiatives: Government-led campaigns promote responsible food consumption, meal planning, and waste reduction. Example: The Indian Food Sharing Alliance (IFSA), launched by FSSAI, connects food businesses and NGOs to reduce waste.
    • Support for Food Processing and Preservation: Encouraging food processing industries to convert surplus produce into value-added products like dried, frozen, or packaged foods. Example: The government provides subsidies and incentives for food processing units under schemes like the Mega Food Parks Scheme to reduce waste.

    Way forward: 

    • Strengthening Food Redistribution Networks: Expand and streamline food donation mechanisms through digital platforms connecting surplus food sources (hotels, supermarkets, households) with NGOs and food banks. Example: A nationwide food-sharing app can help track surplus food and ensure efficient redistribution to the needy.
    • Improving Supply Chain Efficiency with Technology: Leverage AI, IoT, and blockchain for real-time monitoring of food storage, transport conditions, and expiry tracking to reduce wastage. Example: Smart sensors in cold storage and logistics can alert businesses to temperature fluctuations, preventing spoilage of perishable items.

    Mains PYQ:

    Question: Discuss the consequences of climate change on the food security in tropical countries. (UPSC 2017)

    Reason: This question connects climate change to food security, a situation that could be exacerbated by food wastage.

  • Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (CGRFA)

    Why in the News?

    The 20th meeting of the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (CGRFA-20) is currently underway in Rome.

    About Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (CGRFA)

    • The CGRFA is the only permanent intergovernmental body addressing all components of biodiversity-related to food and agriculture.
    • It was established in 1983 as the Commission on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.
    • It operates under the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations.
    • It aims to create international consensus on managing biodiversity in food systems and ensuring the fair and equitable sharing of benefits from these genetic resources.
    • Membership: 179 countries (including India) and the European Union
    • Focus: Coordinates global efforts on biodiversity affecting agriculture, forestry, livestock, and aquatic species, including pollinators, soil organisms, and other vital species for food production.

    Structure and Mandate

    • Structure:
      • Governed by a biennial session where member countries discuss and make decisions.
      • A bureau, elected by member states, guides the Commission’s work.
      • The CGRFA Secretariat, hosted by FAO, offers technical and logistical support.
    • Mandate:
      • Policy Formulation: Develops global action plans, codes of conduct, and policy instruments for sustainable use and conservation of genetic resources for food and agriculture.
      • Global Assessments: Guides preparation of periodic assessments to monitor the status and trends of genetic resources and biodiversity.
      • Sustainable Use of Biodiversity: Promotes biodiversity use for food security, sustainable agriculture, and climate adaptation.
      • Fair and Equitable Benefit Sharing: Ensures fair distribution of benefits from genetic resources, especially plant materials under international treaties.
    • Achievements:
      • International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA): Adopted in 2001, it recognizes farmers’ contributions to crop diversity and provides a global system for accessing plant genetic materials for breeders, farmers, and scientists.
    [UPSC 2014] Consider the following international agreements:

    1. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture

    2. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

    3. The World Heritage Convention

    Which of the above has / have a bearing on the biodiversity?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • 50 Years of Farakka Barrage

    Why in the News?

    It was nearly 50 years ago, that India had completed the construction of the Farakka Barrage.

    About Farakka Barrage

    • The Farakka Barrage is located on the Ganges River in Murshidabad District, West Bengal, India, about 18 km from the Bangladesh border.
    • The barrage measures 2,304 meters (7,559 feet) in length.
    • Its construction began in 1962 and was completed in 1970 at a cost of 1 billion dollars. It became operational on April 21, 1975.
    • The Feeder Canal is approximately 42 km long, connecting the barrage to the Hooghly River.
    • Purpose:
      • It diverts water to the Hooghly River to maintain the navigability of Kolkata Port and to flush out sediment from the river.
      • It diverts 1,800 cubic meters per second of water from the Ganges.
    • Construction Details:
      • Built by Hindustan Construction Company, it consists of 109 gates, with 108 over the river and one over low-lying land as a precaution.
      • Supports the Farakka Super Thermal Power Station.
    • The 1996 Ganges Water Sharing Treaty ensured fair water distribution:
      • 70,000 cusecs or less: 50% to both India and Bangladesh.
      • 70,000 – 75,000 cusecs: India gets 35,000 cusecs, Bangladesh the balance.
      • 75,000 cusecs or more: India receives 40,000 cusecs, Bangladesh gets the remainder.

    Significance in India-Bangladesh Water Sharing:

    • The Farakka Barrage is crucial for irrigation in West Bengal, supporting agriculture during the dry season.
    • Bangladesh, particularly Mongla and Khulna, depends on the Ganges for water.
    • The diverted water has led to water scarcity, impacting agriculture, fisheries, and livelihoods in Bangladesh, causing diplomatic tensions.
    • This treaty ensures equitable distribution and guarantees a minimum flow for Bangladesh.
    • Issues: 
      • Water diversion has led to salinization and soil degradation in Bangladesh, affecting agriculture and freshwater supplies.
      • Biodiversity loss and damage to the Sundarbans mangrove forests have been significant environmental impacts.
    [UPSC 1997] The canal-carrying capacity of Farakka is:

    (a) 40,000 cusecs (b) 60,000 cusecs (c) 80,000 cusecs (d) 100,000 cusecs

     

  • United Nations World Water Development Report, 2025

    Why in the News?

    On March 21, 2025, the United Nations marked the first-ever World Day for Glaciers, and in conjunction, the United Nations World Water Development Report issued a disturbing warning about the rapid loss of glaciers.

     

    Key Highlights of the Report:

    • Hindu Kush Himalayas (HKH) Glacier Loss: Glaciers are melting 65% faster (2011-2020) than the previous decade, with up to 50% shrinkage by 2100 if global temperatures rise by 1.5-2°C.
    • WMO’s Climate Report: The 2024 climate year was the warmest in 175 years, reinforcing the link between rising temperatures and accelerated glacier melt.
    • Unprecedented Glacier Mass Loss: Over 9,000 billion tonnes of ice lost since 1975, with 450 gigatons lost in 2024 alone.
    • Rising Sea Levels: Melting glaciers contribute to sea level rise, displacing 200,000 to 300,000 people annually and increasing coastal flooding risks.
    • Increased Wildfires and Dust Storms: Rising wildfires and dust storms accelerate glacier melt by darkening their surfaces.
    • Permafrost Thawing: Thawing permafrost releases carbon and nutrients, worsening climate change and increasing landslide risks.
    • Declining Snow Cover: A 7.79% global decline in persistent snow cover from 1979-2022 affects water resources.

    About World Glaciers Day 

    • March 21, 2025, marked the first-ever World Day for Glaciers, aimed at raising awareness about glaciers and the risks posed by their loss due to climate change.
    • It was declared by the UN in its resolution A/RES/77/158 along with the International Year of Glaciers 2025.
    • The day calls for governments, organizations, and individuals to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adopt sustainable water management practices.
    [UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements:

    1. Global warming might trigger the release of methane gas from these deposits.

    2. Large deposits of ‘methane hydrate’ are found in Arctic Tundra and under the seafloor.

    3. Methane in atmosphere oxidizes to carbon dioxide after a decade or two.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Spring Equinox, 2025

    Why in the News?

    March 20 marks the arrival of the vernal equinox in the Northern Hemisphere, signaling the beginning of the spring season.

    What are Equinoxes?

    • An equinox occurs when the Earth’s axis is not tilted toward or away from the Sun, resulting in equal length of day and night across the planet.
    • Equinoxes occur twice a year:
      • Vernal Equinox: Around March 20-21, marking the beginning of spring in the Northern Hemisphere and fall in the Southern Hemisphere.
      • Autumnal Equinox: Around September 22-23, marking the beginning of fall in the Northern Hemisphere and spring in the Southern Hemisphere.
    • On an equinox, the Sun is directly above the Equator, leading to almost equal distribution of sunlight between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
    • The equal length of day and night is observed, with each lasting approximately 12 hours.

    What are Solstices?

    • A solstice occurs when the Earth’s tilt is most extreme either towards or away from the Sun. This results in the longest or shortest day of the year in each hemisphere.
    • Solstices occur twice a year:
      • Summer Solstice (Northern Hemisphere): Around June 20-22, marking the longest day and shortest night of the year, as the Northern Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun.
      • Winter Solstice (Northern Hemisphere): Around December 20-23, marking the shortest day and longest night of the year, as the Northern Hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun.
    • Solstices create unequal distribution of sunlight, with one hemisphere receiving significantly more or less sunlight than the other.

    Cultural Significance of the Equinox:

    • Nowruz, celebrated on the vernal equinox, marks the beginning of the Persian New Year.
      • The festival has been celebrated for over 3,000 years by the Zoroastrian community, including the Parsi community in India.
    • Vernal Equinox Day is a national holiday in Japan, celebrating the arrival of spring.
    • Easter, one of the most significant days in Christianity, is determined based on the first Sunday after the first full moon following the vernal equinox.
    • Passover, the Jewish festival, begins on the first full moon after the vernal equinox.

     

    PYQ:

    [UPSC 2019] On 21st June, the Sun
    (a) does not set below the horizon at the Arctic Circle
    (b) does not set below the horizon at Antarctic Circle
    (c) shines vertically overhead at noon on the Equator
    (d) shines vertically overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn

     

  • [18th March 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: How climate change affects India’s wheat production

    PYQ Relevance:

     Q Discuss the consequences of climate change on food security in tropical countries. (UPSC 2023)

    Reason: This question directly addresses the impact of climate change on food security.

    Mentor’s Comment:  UPSC mains have always focused on the strategy of consequences of climate change on the food security (2023) and the ‘Climate Change’ is a global problem (2017).

    Heat waves lead to health crises, crop losses, water shortages, and increased energy demand. In 2023, severe heat in India caused record-breaking temperatures, affecting wheat production in Punjab and Haryana. For example, The Indian state of Bihar had the highest number of heat wave days in 2023, with a total of 18 days. This was followed by the states of Andhra Pradesh and Odisha, both having experienced a total of 15 days of heat waves that year.

    Today’s editorial discusses the impact of Extreme heat in India, providing valuable insights for GS Paper 3 in UPSC Mains answer writing.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    This year, India experienced its hottest February in 124 years. The India Meteorological Department (IMD) has warned that March will also be hotter than usual, with more days of extreme heat.

    What are the major wheat-producing states in India?

    • Uttar Pradesh is the largest wheat producer, contributing approximately 31.77% to India’s total wheat output. In the crop year 2023-24, it produced around 35.34 million tonnes of wheat from an area of 9.53 million hectares. Example: Districts like Meerut, Muzaffarnagar, and Agra are significant contributors, utilizing both traditional and modern agricultural practices to achieve high yields.
    • Madhya Pradesh ranks second, accounting for about 20.98% of the national production. The state produced approximately 22.58 million tonnes in the same crop year. Example: The Malwa plateau region, particularly districts like Indore and Ujjain, benefits from black soil and moderate temperatures, which are conducive to wheat cultivation.
    • Punjab Known as the “Granary of India,” contributes around 13.87% to India’s wheat output, with a production of about 17.74 million tonnes. Example: Major districts such as Amritsar and Ludhiana utilize advanced farming techniques and well-developed irrigation systems to maintain high productivity levels.

    Why is wheat primarily grown in these regions?

    • Agro-Climatic Conditions – These states have a cool winter and warm summer, which is ideal for wheat cultivation. The Rabi season (sown in November-December, harvested in March-April) aligns perfectly with the climate. Example: The Malwa plateau in Madhya Pradesh benefits from moderate temperatures that support high wheat yields.
    • Fertile Soil – These regions have alluvial and black soil, which retain moisture and provide essential nutrients for wheat growth. The soil is well-suited for irrigated farming. Example: The Indo-Gangetic plains of Uttar Pradesh and Punjab have deep, fertile alluvial soil, which supports extensive wheat cultivation.
    • Irrigation Facilities – These states have well-developed canal and groundwater irrigation systems, ensuring a stable water supply for wheat crops, which require controlled irrigation. Example: Punjab’s extensive canal network, supported by the Bhakra Nangal Dam, ensures year-round irrigation, enabling high wheat productivity.

    Why is extreme heat during the wheat harvest season a serious concern for India’s food security and economy?

    • Reduced Wheat Yield: Extreme heat accelerates wheat ripening, leading to shorter grain-filling periods and lighter grains. This results in lower overall production, affecting food availability. Example: In 2022, a sudden heatwave in March reduced India’s wheat output from the projected 111 million tonnes to ~107 million tonnes.
    • Lower Grain Quality: High temperatures increase protein content but reduce starch accumulation, making wheat harder and affecting its milling quality. Example: Farmers in Punjab and Haryana reported lower market prices in 2023 due to poor grain quality caused by excessive heat.
    • Impact on Food Security: Wheat is a staple for a significant portion of India’s population. Production shortfalls can lead to food shortages, disproportionately affecting low-income communities. The 2025 heatwave poses a serious threat to wheat and rice production, potentially leading to a 6-10% decline, thereby jeopardizing food security for millions.
    • Economic Losses for Farmers: Heat stress forces farmers to spend more on irrigation, fertilizers, and pest control, increasing costs while reducing yields, leading to financial distress. Example: Farmers in Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan faced heavy losses in 2023 due to unexpected temperature spikes during the grain-filling stage.
    • Disruptions in Procurement & Trade: Lower production impacts government wheat procurement, affecting stock availability for schemes like the Public Distribution System (PDS) and exports. Example: India had to ban wheat exports in 2022 to ensure domestic supply, disrupting global markets and trade agreements.

    What steps have been taken by the Indian government?

    • Minimum Support Price (MSP) – The government announces a minimum support price for wheat every year to ensure farmers get a fair price and are encouraged to produce more. Example: In 2023-24, the MSP for wheat was ₹2,275 per quintal, benefiting farmers in states like Punjab and Uttar Pradesh.
    • Subsidized Inputs – The government provides subsidies on seeds, fertilizers, and electricity to make wheat farming more affordable and increase productivity. Example: Under the National Food Security Mission (NFSM), high-yield variety (HYV) seeds and soil nutrients are distributed to farmers in states like Madhya Pradesh.
    • Irrigation Development – Investment in major irrigation projects has improved water availability, reducing dependence on erratic rainfall. Example: The Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) has helped expand irrigation in wheat-producing states like Punjab and Uttar Pradesh.
    • Research & Development (R&D) – The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and agricultural universities develop climate-resilient, high-yield wheat varieties to enhance productivity. Example: The DBW-187 wheat variety, developed by ICAR, has helped increase yields in states like Haryana and Madhya Pradesh.
    • Procurement & Storage Infrastructure – The Food Corporation of India (FCI) and state agencies procure large quantities of wheat to ensure food security and stabilize market prices. Example: In 2023, FCI procured over 26 million tonnes of wheat, mainly from Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh, ensuring buffer stock availability.

    What adaptation and mitigation strategies can policymakers implement to protect wheat crops from rising temperatures? (Way forward)

    • Development of Heat-Resistant Wheat Varieties: Traditional wheat varieties are vulnerable to heat stress, reducing yield and quality. Example: The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has developed HD 3385, a climate-resilient wheat variety with better heat tolerance, which is expected to perform well in rising temperatures.
    • Shifting Sowing Dates and Crop Calendars: Adjusting the sowing period can help wheat plants escape extreme heat during critical growth phases. Example: The Punjab Agricultural University (PAU) has recommended advancing wheat sowing to mid-October instead of November to allow crops to mature before peak heat in March-April.
    • Improved Irrigation and Water Management: Heat stress increases water loss from soil and plants, requiring efficient irrigation. Example: The “Per Drop More Crop” scheme under Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) promotes micro-irrigation (drip and sprinkler systems) to optimize water use in wheat-growing states like Uttar Pradesh and Punjab.
    • Promoting Conservation Agriculture Practices: Practices like zero tillage and residue mulching help retain soil moisture and lower soil temperature. Example: Zero tillage wheat in Haryana and Punjab has shown 5-10% higher yields and reduced water usage compared to conventional plowing methods.
    • Climate Forecasting and Early Warning Systems: Advanced weather predictions help farmers plan for extreme heat events. Example: The Gramin Krishi Mausam Seva (GKMS) provides real-time agro-advisories, warning farmers about heatwaves and recommending protective measures like additional irrigation and mulching.

  • Air Pollution will Lower India’s Solar Generation Capacity: Study

    Why in the News?

    A new study by IIT Delhi, published in Environmental Research Letters (November 2024), reveals that air pollution and climate change are undermining solar panel efficiency in India.

    Key Findings of the IIT Delhi Study

    • Efficiency Loss Forecast:
      • Scenario 1 (Moderate climate efforts): Solar panel efficiency is projected to decline by more than 2.3% by 2041-2050.
      • Scenario 2 (Weak climate action, strong air pollution control): Efficiency drops by 2.3%, amounting to at least 840 GWh loss annually.
    • Primary Causes:
      • Solar radiation decline is the biggest factor.
      • Temperature increase follows closely, with a 2°C rise in cell temperature predicted by mid-century.
      • Wind speed variations have minimal but present impact.
    • Kerala and Northeast regions could see higher solar potential due to reduced cloud cover, offering opportunities for future solar investments.

    India’s Solar Capacity

    • India, is the 5th-largest solar power producer globally.
    • India has achieved a significant milestone with a total installed solar capacity of 100.33 GW as of January 31, 2025.
    • India’s solar capacity has increased 35 times in the past decade, growing from 2.82 GW in 2014 to 100 GW in 2025.
    • PM SuryaGhar Muft Bijli Yojana has been a key driver in promoting rooftop solar, with nearly 9 lakh rooftop installations already completed.
    • A record 24.5 GW of solar capacity was added in 2024, more than doubling the installations compared to 2023.
    • In 2024, 18.5 GW of utility-scale solar capacity was installed, a nearly 2.8 x increase compared to the previous year.
    • Rajasthan, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh are the top-performing states, contributing significantly to India’s solar installations.
    • India’s solar module production capacity has surged from 2 GW in 2014 to 60 GW in 2024, establishing the country as a global leader in solar manufacturing.

    PYQ:

    [2020] India has immense potential for solar energy though there are regional variations in its developments. Elaborate.

    [2018] With reference to solar power production in India, consider the following statements:

    1. India is the third largest in the world in the manufacture of silicon wafers used in photovoltaic units.

    2. The solar power tariffs are determined by the Solar Energy Corporation of India.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2