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Subject: Indian Society

  • Why are the tribals in India referred to as the Scheduled Tribes? Indicate the major provisions enshrined in the Constitution of India for their upliftment.

  • The growth of cities as I.T. hubs has opened up new avenues employment but has also created new problems. Substantiate this statement with examples.

  • What are the two major legal initiatives by the State since Independence, addressing discrimination against Scheduled Tribes (STs)?

  • In the context of diversity of India, can it be said that the regions form cultural units rather than the States? Give reasons with examples for your viewpoint.

  • The spirit tolerance and love is not only an interesting feature of Indian society from very early times, but it is also playing an important part at the present. Elaborate.

  • Distinguish between religiousness/religiosity and communalism giving one example of how the former has got transformed into the latter in independent India.

  • Communalism arises either due to power struggle or relative deprivation. Argue by giving suitable illustrations.

    In the Indian context, communalism refers to a political ideology that uses religious identity to mobilize groups for secular ends. As per T.K. Oommen, it is the “politicization of religious identity.”

    Power Struggle Leading to Communalism

    Colonial Legacy of “Divide and Rule”- The British used communalism to prevent the rise of a united nationalist front. Eg- separate electorates under Morley-Minto Reforms.

    Partition of India due to power struggle between Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha.

    Electoral Mobilization- “communal polarization” for vote bank politics. Eg- Ram Janmabhoomi movement

    The Institutionalized Riot System – Paul Brass argues that riots are produced through three stages- Preparation (constant tension), Activation, and Explanation for electoral benefits. Eg- hate speech-riots-blame game.

    Instrumentalist school- as per Asghar Ali Engineer, it is a tool used by the elites to safeguard their leadership and prevent class-based mobilization of the poor.

    Administrative Partisanship- If the state machinery appears biased, it emboldens communal actors. Eg- administrative paralysis during 1984 Anti-Sikh riots.

    Politicization of history – Eg- Conflicts over Gyanvapi Mosque or Shahi Idgah serve as sites for asserting cultural and political hegemony.

    Separatist movements like Khalistan and insurgency in North-East highlights struggle for political autonomy

    Political underrepresentation – Lack of voice in governance intensifies alienation. Eg- only 24 muslim MPs in 18th LS

    Relative Deprivation Leading to Communalism

    As per Ted Robert Gurr, relative deprivation occurs when there is a perceived gap between a group’s “value expectations” and their “value capabilities”.

    Sir Syed Ahmed Khan advised Muslims not to join congress to increase their representation in government jobs. (Loyal Muhammadans of India – book)

    Socio-Economic Backwardness –

    Sachar Committee Report (2006) highlighted the lack of Muslims in government jobs, fueling a sense of systemic deprivation.

    Ghettoization and poverty in cities foster “us vs. them” mentalities.

    Economic Competition and conflict

    1961 Jabalpur Riots due to competition between Hindu and Muslim bidi entrepreneurs

    Conflicts over resources are given a communal color to mobilize support quickly. Eg- Moplah revolt of 1921 by Mapilla muslims against muslim landlords

    Majoritarianism- fear among minorities of suppression of their language or traditions by a secular or majority culture. Eg- portest against triple talaq.

    Educational Mismatch- illiteracy and unemployment among youth makes them susceptible to communal outfits that offer a sense of identity and purpose. Eg- Burhan Vani

    Migration and fear of demographic change- Native populations feel deprived of jobs by “outsiders.” Eg- Communal tensions in Assam due to migration of Bangladeshi muslims

    Way Forward

    Implementing the Prakash Singh Directives to ensure the police act as an impartial force during tensions

    Implementing recommendations of the Amitabh Kundu Committee to ensure development reaches the “bottom-most” layers of all communities.

    Civic Integration (Ashutosh Varshney) through mixed-religion residential societies and business associations to act as a buffer against riots.

    Regulating Hate Speech- Strict enforcement of MCC during elections.

    Community Policing- Scaling models like Mohalla Committees (Mumbai).

    Establishing Fast Track Courts to ensure timely persecution of perpetrators of riot

    Inclusive development policies and ethical political leadership are needed to ensure that power competition does not fracture social cohesion and deprivation does not become a communal grievance.

  • Mention core strategies for the transformation of aspirational districts in India and explain the nature of convergence, collaboration and competition for its success.

    The Aspirational Districts Programme, is aimed at transforming 112 most under-developed districts. It shifts the development narrative from “backwardness” to “aspiration,” focusing on localized governance rather than a top-down approach.

    Core Strategies for Transformation of Aspirational Districts

    Thematic Weightage- Health & Nutrition (30%), Education (30%), Agriculture & Water (20%), Financial Inclusion & Skill Dev (10%), and Basic Infrastructure (10%).

    Outcome-Based Governance – Progress is measured through 49 KPIs

    Evidence-Based Policy- Third-party surveys (by agencies like IDinsight and Tata Trusts) validate data to ensure transparency.

    District-Centric Planning – Empowering District Collectors to customize interventions.

    Appointing Prabhari Officers- Senior Central and State officials act as mentors to bridge the gap between policy and implementation.

    Real-Time Monitoring through “Champions of Change” Dashboard

    Human Capital Focus – Eg- Reduction in malnutrition and school dropouts.

    Jan Andolan- Transformation is treated as a social movement, engaging citizens in schemes like Poshan Abhiyaan.

    Convergence

    Centre-State-District Alignment – Pooling resources and schemes. Eg- using MGNREGA labor to build schools under Samagra Shiksha.

    Inter-Departmental Coordination for breaking silos among line departments. Eg- Joint planning by health, women & child development, rural development.

    Financial and Administrative Convergence for optimal use of funds, avoiding duplication and plugging last-mile gaps.

    Collaboration

    Cooperative federalism- Prabhari officers (Centre) and Nodal officers (State) work as a single team

    Philanthropic Alliances- Partnerships with organizations like Piramal Foundation and Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation for technical support.

    Development Partners – Technical support and best practices. Eg- world Bank

    Competition

    Unique “delta ranking” system to promote healthy competition and transparent performance comparison.

    Incentive Grants- Top-performing districts receive additional financial rewards (up to â‚č10 crore).

    Peer Learning- Rankings encourage low-performing districts to study and replicate the “Best Practices”.

    Success of this model has paved the way for the Aspirational Blocks Programme, ensuring that the spirit of Convergence, Collaboration, and Competition reaches the last mile of Indian democracy.

  • Despite implementation of various programmes for eradication of poverty by the government in India, poverty is still existing.’ Explain by giving reasons.

    Though 24.82 crore people escaped multidimensional poverty between 2013-14 and 2022-23, around 11.28% of the population still lives under poverty. (NITI Aayog)

    Various programmes for eradication of poverty

    MGNREGA- Wage employment.

    PMAY (G & U)- Housing for all.

    Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana (Free food grains to 81 crore people).

    Ayushman Bharat (PM-JAY)- World’s largest health insurance scheme.

    DAY-NRLM- Self-help groups.

    PM-Jan Dhan Yojana- Financial inclusion and bank account access.

    Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY)

    Reasons Behind the Persistence of Poverty

    Jobless growth due to shift from agriculture to service led growth instead of manufacturing led growth. Eg- service sector contributes 55% of GDP but employs only 30% of workforce

    Corruption in PDS

    Ghost beneficiaries (10 lakh in Ayushman Bharat as per CAG)

    Inclusion and exclusion errors

    Low Agricultural Productivity-

    Employs nearly 45% of the workforce, but it contributes only ~17% to the GDP.

    Small and fragmented landholdings (86%) keep rural incomes at subsistence levels.

    Over 90% of the Indian workforce is in the informal sector – lack social security and stable wages, leading to “working poverty.”

    Social Stratification- Caste-based and gender-based discrimination.

    96% manual scavengers are Dalits

    Women own only 13% of land while forming 63% of agriculture workforce

    Population Pressure (1.35 billion) strains public infrastructure, housing, and the job market.

    Economic Inequality – richest 1% control more than 40% of total wealth, while the bottom 50% own merely 3% (Oxfam Report)

    High Out-of-Pocket Expenditure (OOPE) in healthcare (40%) pushes “near-poor” families back into poverty.

    Rural-Urban divide – Poor access to quality education and vocational training limits employability.

    Regional disparities – BIMARU states lag behind southern states in human development indicators.

    To bridge the remaining gap and achieve SDG-1, the government must move from Welfare to Empowerment (Capability Building) model of development.

  • Women’s movement in India has not addressed the issues of women of lower social strata. Substantiate your view.

    “I measure the progress of a community by the degree of progress which women have achieved.” – Dr. B.R. Ambedkar

    Major women movements in India

    Anti-Sati Movement led by Raja Ram Mohan Roy.

    Satyashodhak Samaj led by Savitribai and Jyotirao Phule pioneered female education

    Anti-Dowry Campaigns (1980s)- Led by groups like Mahila Dakshata Samiti

    Women’s Indian Association first to demand women’s suffrage

    SEWA – Founded by Ela Bhatt, organized women in SHG and trade unions

    Mathura Rape Case Protest (1979-80)- led to first major amendment in Rape Laws

    Triple Talaq Movement led by the Bharatiya Muslim Mahila Andolan (BMMA)

    Chipko Movement- Led by women like Gaura Devi

    Navdanya Movement (Vandana Shiva) – empowers women to preserve biodiversity and seeds

    #MeToo Movement – against sexual harassment at workplace

    However, they failed to address the issues of women of lower strata

    It failed to recognise the triple burden of discrimination (intersection of Caste, Class, and Gender) as it treated “Woman” as a monolithic category. Eg- Hatras rape case

    Intersection of gender and religious marginalization was weakly addressed. Eg- Muslim women’s socio-economic exclusion received less attention beyond advocacy of UCC and Triple Talaq

    Leadership and agenda dominated by elite women – Early focus on legal reforms like dowry and workplace equality over survival issues like hunger and wage security.

    Limited focus on informal and unpaid work – Eg- more focuses on “glass ceilings” in corporate offices, neglecting agricultural laborers. (Over 90% of Dalit women work in the unorganized sector.)

    Urban bias in issues and mobilization – Eg- Rural women’s access to drinking water, fuelwood, and sanitation remained peripheral.

    Inadequate engagement with tribal women’s concerns – Development-induced displacement received limited feminist mobilization.

    Neglect of women issues in conflict zones – Eg- Women in Kashmir and the Northeast did not become sustained focal points of mainstream movements.

    Dependence on NGO-ization and donor agendas – Project-driven advocacy replaced mass mobilization among poor women.

    Educational Exclusion- Elite feminism focuses on “STEM representation,” while lower-strata women struggle with basic literacy and school dropouts.

    Health Disparities- feminist debates revolve around “reproductive choice” (abortion rights), while marginalized women face lack of basic maternal healthcare.

    Language Barrier- Feminist discourse is largely in English, creating a “vocabulary of exclusion” for rural, non-English speaking women.

    Digital Divide- “Hashtag Activism” (#MeToo) failed to reach rural women due to digital illiteracy.

    Counter-Argument- Positive Impacts on the Lower Strata

    Grassroots Political Entry- Eg- women representation in PRIs stands at 46%

    SHGs- NABARD-led SHG movement has empowered millions of rural women through micro-credit and financial literacy. Eg- Kudumbshree in Kerala

    Legal empowerment-

    SC/ST Prevention of Atrocities Act.

    Right to temple entry after Sabrimala Verdict

    Triple Talaq ban

    Anti-Liquor Movements led by poor women to save household income and reduce domestic abuse. Eg- Arrack Movement in Nellore, Andhra Pradesh

    Eco-Feminism- Chipko Movement was essentially a struggle by rural women for their daily fuel and fodder resources.

    Labor Reforms- SEWA model has successfully unionized thousands of street vendors and ragpickers.

    Dalit Feminism- rise of autonomous groups like the National Federation of Dalit Women (NFDW).

    Way Forward

    Adopting an “Intersectionality Lens” that acknowledges caste and class alongside gender in every policy.

    Caste-Gender Sensitivity Training for police and judiciary

    Mainstreaming Gender Budgeting

    De-NGO-ization – Revive grassroots feminist politics.

    Only by embracing a “Bahujan Feminism” can the movement fulfill Ambedkar’s vision of a truly progressive and equal society.