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Subject: Indian Society

  • Explore and evaluate the impact of ‘Work From Home’ on family relationships.

    The Work From Home (WFH) model, accelerated during the COVID-19 pandemic, has reconfigured the interface between work and family.

    Positive Impacts of WFH on Family Relationships

    Increased Family Time and financial stability due to reduced commuting time and cost

    Strengthening of Emotional Bonds – Eg- Shared meals and daily conversations improving marital and parent-child relationships.

    Improved value transmission and greater “parent watch” over children.

    Opportunity for renegotiation of gender roles. Eg- Increased involvement of men in childcare and household responsibilities.

    Support for Elderly Care – Easier supervision and emotional support for ageing parents.

    Improved Work-Life Balance – Flexibility in scheduling family and work commitments.

    Greater flexibility in work led to an increased number of women entering the workforce.

    Negative Impacts of WFH on Family Relationships

    Blurring of Work-Family Boundaries – Eg- Extended work hours causing stress and irritability.

    Constant proximity–

    Reduction in personal space and time leading to conflicts as reflected in increasing divorce rates

    Rise in cases of domestic violence during COVID

    Dual Burden on Women – paid work + disproportionate housework and care duties.

    Mental Health Strain – Isolation from colleagues leading to isolation and loneliness.

    Sedentary Family Habits- Parents and children transitioning directly from work/school screens to leisure screens without leaving the house.

    Lower-income households face stress due to cramped living conditions and unstable jobs.

    Way Forward

    Clear work-hour norms to protect family time

    Gender-sensitive workplace policies

    Mental health support for employees

    Hybrid work models offering flexibility

    The right to disconnect Bill needs to be passed to ensure work life balance in the WFH context.

  • How is the growth of Tier 2 cities related to the rise of a new middle class with an emphasis on the culture of consumption?

    Tier 2 cities are urban centers with a population between 50,000 and 100,000. Tier 2 and Tier 3 cities house over 51% of MSMEs and are witnessing a 20-25% annual growth in organized retail.

    Reasons for Growth of Tier 2 Cities

    Infrastructure Push- Projects like Bharatmala and PM Gati Shakti. Eg- Lucknow-Kanpur Expressway

    Increasing industrialization and urbanization – 37% population living in cities

    Regional Air Connectivity under UDAN Scheme increasing accessibility.

    IT Decentralization- Companies moving to “Spoke-and-Hub” models in cities like Kochi.

    Reverse Migration among skilled professionals due to work from home culture and increasing cost of living in Tier-1 cities

    Lower Cost of Operations for startups.

    Educational Hubs-expansion of IITs, IIMs, and private universities in cities like Jodhpur and Bhubaneswar.

    Smart Cities Mission- Digital and civic upgrades in 100 cities improving “Ease of Living.”

    Linkages between growth of tier-2 cities and the new consumption-oriented middle class

    Economic Decentralisation – Movement of industries and services beyond metros has generated stable salaried employment.

    Rising Disposable Incomes due to rising incomes and lower cost of living allows higher discretionary spending.

    Real Estate Boom – Growth of housing, malls, multiplexes, and gated communities reshape lifestyles.

    Expansion of organised retail, food chains, and lifestyle services cater to aspirational consumers. Eg- Zudio, McDonald in tier-2 cities

    E-commerce Penetration- Deep logistics networks by Amazon and Flipkart

    Digital Penetration – Internet, smartphones, and OTT platforms diffuse global consumer culture. Eg- Online shopping and influencer-driven consumption.

    Cultural Shift from Necessity to Lifestyle Consumption – Travel, dining out, fitness centres, and entertainment becoming routine expenses. Eg- fitness chains like Cult.fit

    Credit Expansion – Easy access to loans and EMIs fuels consumption. Eg- Buy Now, Pay Later option.

    Changing Social Values – Individualism and aspiration replace frugality and traditional restraint.

    Ensuring that consumption-led growth is inclusive and sustainable is needed to make Tier-2 cities as engines of equitable urban development.

  • Elucidate the relationship between globalization and new technology in a world of scarce resources, with special reference to India.

    Thomas Friedman defines globalization as the inexorable integration of markets, nation-states, and technologies, making it farther, faster, deeper, and cheaper. It has accelerated the diffusion of technology thereby enabling efficient use, substitution, and management of scarce resources.

    Relationship between globalisation and new technology

    New technologies reduce the constraints of distance, time, and cost.

    Efficient Resource Utilisation– Eg- Precision agriculture using satellite data and sensors to reduce water and fertiliser use.

    Shift from Resource-Intensive to Knowledge-Intensive Growth– Eg- India’s IT-ITeS sector generating exports with minimal material input compared to manufacturing.

    Global Diffusion of cleaner and resource-efficient technologies. Eg- Solar and wind technologies.

    Integration into Global Value Chains (GVCs) – Technology enables countries to specialise in specific stages of production. Eg- India as the pharmacy of the world.

    Resource constraints stimulate technological innovation for low-cost solutions for energy, healthcare, and mobility. Eg- telemedicine under eSanjeevani

    The Circular Economy- Globalization facilitates the trade of “waste-as-resource” across borders.

    Exposure to global markets compels efficiency and innovation. Eg- Indian manufacturing adopting automation and Industry 4.0 to remain competitive.

    Technology for Resource Governance– GIS, remote sensing, and digital dashboards used for water management and climate action in India.

    Collaborative R&D- globalization pools global intellect. Eg- ITER project for nuclear fusion involving the EU, US, India, and China.

    Negative Impacts

    Unsustainable Extraction of mineral resources- Eg- Massive Lithium mining in South America to fuel the global EV boom.

    E-Waste Accumulation- Eg- Humanity produces 62 million tonnes of electronic waste every year.

    Technological Imperialism- Eg- Disputes over “Intellectual Property Rights” (IPR) for high-efficiency carbon-capture tech.

    Carbon Footprint of Logistics- Eg- global shipping and aviation account for ~10% of CO2 emissions.

    Digital Divide- Access to tech itself becomes a “scarce resource.” Eg- Only 40% of the Global South having access to 5G.

    Global competition for resources leading to conflicts

    China’s weaponization of rare earth supply chains.

    US attempt to take over Greenland

    Obsolescence by Design- Tech firms globally produce short-lived products to drive sales, wasting minerals. Eg- Smartphones designed with non-replaceable batteries.

    Labor Exploitation for Resources- Eg- Child labor in Cobalt mines in the DRC.

    Impact on India

    For India, the path forward lies in “Frugal Innovation” to ensure that the digital revolution does not come at the cost of the environment.

  • Are tolerance, assimilation and pluralism the key elements in the making of an Indian form of secularism? Justify your answer.

    Secularism in the Indian context implies a “principled distance”, ensuring freedom of conscience while upholding constitutional morality, equality, and public order.

    Key Elements of Indian Secularism

    Tolerance

    Historical coexistence of faiths – Eg- Coexistence of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism over centuries.

    Constitutional protection – Freedom to profess, practice, and propagate religion under Articles 25 reflects tolerance towards different religious practices

    Sarva Dharma Sambhava remains the philosophical bedrock of Indian secularism, ensuring no single religion is prioritized.

    Article 51A (f)- Mandates a Fundamental Duty to “value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture.”

    India’s history of sheltering persecuted communities (Parsis, Jews, Tibetans) highlights civilizational tolerance.

    Assimilation

    Cultural assimilation through syncretism – Eg- Bhakti-Sufi traditions blending devotional practices.

    Rejection of forced assimilation – Eg- protection to cultural practices of tribals under 6th schedule

    Linguistic Assimilation- Eighth Schedule reflects an assimilation of Sanskrit, and regional dialects.

    Architecture and Art- The Indo-Islamic style (Taj Mahal, Red Fort) is a physical manifestation of the assimilation of two distinct cultural worlds.

    Only practices violating equality and dignity are reformed. Eg- Abolition of untouchability under Article 17.

    Pluralism as the core principle

    Recognition of diversity as intrinsic – Eg- Legal recognition of multiple personal laws.

    Indian secularism emphasizes principled distance (Rajeev Bhargava) rather than equidistance. Eg- State support for pilgrimages.

    Article 29 & 30- Provides the “Right of Minorities” to establish and administer educational institutions, protecting their distinct language, script, or culture.

    Religious Denominations (Article 26)- Grants every religious group the right to manage their own affairs in matters of religion.

    National holidays on festivals of all religions. Eg- diwali, eid etc

    Other Aspects of Indian Secularism

    Reformatory Justice- state can intervene in religion to ban harmful practices like Sati, or Triple Talaq.

    State Funding to religious schools as long as they meet secular educational standards.

    Substantive Equality- It focuses on equality between religious groups as much as equality within them.

    Practiced as principled neutrality with respect for pluralism, Indian secularism protects both cultural practices and constitutional values.

  • Given the diversities among tribal communities in India, in which specific contexts should they be considered as a single category ?

    India’s 110 million tribal population (8.6%) comprise over 705 distinct ethnic groups. However, they are legally and politically unified under the category of “Scheduled Tribes” (STs).

    Diversities Among Tribal Communities in India

    Ethnic and Racial – Negrito (Andamanese) and Proto-Australoid (Central Indian tribes) to Mongoloid (Northeast tribes).

    Modes of Subsistence- Hunter-Gatherers (Sentinels), Pastoralists (Toda), Shifting Cultivators (Jhumias of Mizoram), Settled Agriculturists (Meenas of).

    Geographical Dispersion- arid deserts of Rajasthan (Bhils), high Himalayas (Gaddis), tropical rainforests of the Andamans.

    Social Organization- Matrilineal societies of Meghalaya (Khasis, Garos), Patrilineal systems of Central India.

    Religious Beliefs- Sarnaism (nature worship), Christianity (Northeast), Buddhism (Ladakh), or Hinduism (Central India).

    Demographic Scale- Gonds and Bhils number in millions, PVTGs like the Great Andamanese fewer than 50 members.

    Educational Attainment- nearly 90% in Mizoram to less than 30% among PVTGs in Chhattisgarh.

    Specific contexts where tribes can be considered as a single category

    Political Representation and Voice – limited representation in “cabinet” as well as in administration. Eg- less than 5% SC/ST at secretary level

    Constitutional and Legal Safeguards – Unified recognition as Scheduled Tribes for protective discrimination. Eg- Fifth and Sixth Schedule, reservations in education, employment, and legislatures.

    Administrative Planning and Resource Allocation – Eg- Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP)

    Historical Experience of Marginalisation – Shared legacy of colonial forest policies, land alienation, and erosion of autonomy.

    Structural Economic Deprivation – Common patterns of poverty, livelihood insecurity, and dependence on primary resources.

    Human Development Deficits – Similar disadvantages in nutrition, health, and education indicators at the aggregate level.

    Vulnerability to Displacement and Development Projects – Disproportionate impact of mining, dams, and conservation projects on tribal regions.

    Social Exclusion and Discrimination – Limited access to education, healthcare, markets, and political institutions across regions.

    Ecological and Livelihood Linkages – Shared dependence on forests, land, and commons for survival. Eg- shifting cultivation

    Implementing SC judgment on sub-categorization (Davinder Singh case) can help avoid over-homogenisation and one-size-fits for all approach

  • Analyse the salience of ‘sect’ in Indian society vis-a-vis caste, region and religion.

    In Indian society, sect refers to a religious-spiritual subgroup organised around a shared doctrine, deity, guru, or ritual practice. Unlike caste, region, and religion, which are largely ascriptive identities, sects are voluntary and belief-based.

    Salience of Sect in Indian Society

    Sect vis-a-vis Caste

    Transcending caste boundaries – Eg- Bhakti sects like Kabir Panth rejecting caste distinctions.

    Alternative social identity – Provides dignity to marginalised castes. Eg- Ravidassia sect among Dalits.

    Avenue for Social Mobility- Eg- Many lower-caste groups in North India joined the Arya Samaj to gain social respectability through Vedic education.

    Sects bridge the divide between different castes by focusing on a shared devotion to a guru or deity.

    However, caste infiltration persists. Eg- Vaishnava sects dominated by upper castes in leadership roles.

    Sect vis-a-vis Religion

    Sub-religious pluralism – Sects allow diversity within a single religion.

    Shaiva, Vaishnava, Shakti and Smartism within Hinduism

    Sunni-Shia within Islam.

    Himayana, Mahayana, Vajrayana within Buddhism

    Digambara and swetambara within Jainism

    Personalised spirituality – Emphasis on devotion rather than dogma. Eg- Bhakti and Sufi sects focusing on bhakti and ishq.

    Instrument of reform – Challenges orthodoxy and ritualism. Eg- Buddhism and Jainism emerging as sect-like reform movements.

    Charismatic Leadership (Guru-Cults) – sects are often centered around a living or historical spiritual guide. Eg- Raja Rammohan Roy (Brahmo Samaj)

    Sectarian identity can sometimes create friction. Eg- Friction between Thenkalai and Vadakalai sects over the prayers offered at the Sri Devarajaswamy Temple in Kanchipuram.

    Modern “New Age” sects help urbanites reconnect with their religion in a contemporary, simplified way. Eg- ISKCON (Hare Krishna movement)

    Sect vis-a-vis Region

    Regional localisation of sects – Sects adapt to local languages and cultures. Eg- Varkari sect in Maharashtra, Lingayat sect in Karnataka.

    Cultural integration – Sect strengthens regional identity while retaining pan-Indian appeal. Eg- Chaitanya Mahaprabhu’s Vaishnavism in Bengal.

    Sect builds social cohesion and strong community bonds within a region. Eg- Sikh Panth.

    Sect as a tool of political and social mobilization within a specific region. Eg- Lingayat movement seeking minority religion status.

    The sect occupies a unique intermediate position in Indian society, less rigid than caste, more flexible than religion, and more fluid than region. It has played a crucial role in spiritual democratisation and social cohesion.

  • Child cuddling is now being replaced by mobile phones. Discuss its impact on the socialization of children.

    Socialization is the process through which children internalize values, norms, emotions, and social skills. Increasing substitution of physical affection with mobile phones is reshaping this process.

    Impact on the Socialization of Children

    Negative Impacts

    Excessive digital mediation risks creating “emotionally under-nurtured but digitally over-stimulated” children.

    Weakening of Emotional Bonding – Reduced physical affection hampers secure attachment formation.

    Delayed Emotional Development as screens cannot reciprocate emotions. Eg- Children struggle to recognise empathy, affection, and emotional cues.

    Impaired Language and Communication Skills due to limited verbal interaction.

    Excessive screen use affects self-regulation. Eg- Short attention span and impulsive behaviour.

    Erosion of Family Interaction – Eg- Children engaged with phones during meals instead of conversation.

    Reduced Moral and Value Transmission – Informal teaching through interaction declines. Eg- absence of grand parents in nuclear families

    Social Isolation – Digital engagement replaces real-world relationships.

    Early Consumerist Socialization – Eg- Desire for gadgets and branded products influenced by online media.

    Decline in physical activities lead to health issues. Eg- Roughly 188 million children (1 in 10) are living with obesity in 2025 (UNICEF)

    Positive Impacts

    Early Cognitive Stimulation – Eg- Storytelling and alphabet-learning apps supporting early literacy.

    Digital Social Skills – Familiarity with digital interaction norms prepares children for digital future. Eg- emojis

    Bridging Physical Distance and maintaining emotional bonds with distant family. Eg- Video calls with grandparents.

    Encourages curiosity and self-directed learning. Eg- Interactive games requiring problem-solving.

    Cultural Awareness- Apps expose children to diverse languages and social norms. Eg- learning about Indian history through an educational YouTube series.

    Healthy socialization requires balanced parenting, where human touch and attention remain central, and screens are used sparingly and purposefully.

  • Discuss the impact of post-liberal economy on ethnic identity and communalism.

    The phase after 1991 economic reforms was marked by market liberalization, privatization, globalization, and reduced state control. It also reshaped social relations.

    Impact on Ethnic Identity

    Positive Impacts

    New states were created to give ethnic blocks control over resources. Eg- formation of Jharkhand for tribal resource autonomy.

    Better infrastructure and connectivity mainstreaming neglected ethics groups. Eg- tribes from North-East migrating to Delhi for education and employment

    Global Market for Ethnic Goods

    Global demand for Pashmina shawls from Kashmir.

    Revival of the Kanchipuram silk weaving industry.

    Intellectual Property Protection- Eg- GI status Channapatna Toys

    Rise of Cultural Tourism- Eg- Hornbill Festival in Nagaland

    Digital Ethnic Revivals- Eg- use of YouTube by Tulu speakers to promote their language.

    Negative Impacts

    Uneven growth – Disparities sharpen identity consciousness.

    Cultural Homogenization- “MacDonaldization” has replaced ethnic diets and dress with global standards. Eg- decline of millet-based diets.

    Development-Induced Displacement- Eg- Tribal displacement in the Hasdeo forests due to mining.

    Linguistic Dominance- economic necessity of English and Hindi marginalizes local ethnic dialects.

    Resource Exploitation- Eg- desecration of sacred groves and ethnic lands.

    Impact on Communalism

    Positive Impacts

    Economic interdependence – Market ties reduce incentives for conflict. Eg- Inter-community business partnerships in urban clusters.

    Professionalism over Parochialism- Corporate cultures prioritize merit and profit over religious identity.

    Urban plural living – Mixed neighbourhoods foster everyday coexistence. Eg- Apartment cultures in metros.

    Secularization of Public Spaces- Malls, airports, and IT parks act as “identity-neutral” zones.

    Growth of the Rational Middle Class that prioritizes stability and development over conflict.

    Information Transparency- digital age allows for the rapid debunking of communal “rumors” by civil society. Eg- ALT news

    Negative Impacts

    Relative Deprivation-

    Sachar Committee Report (2006) highlighted the lack of Muslims in government jobs, fueling a sense of systemic deprivation.

    Ghettoization and poverty in cities foster “us vs. them” mentalities.

    Digital Polarization- Social media algorithms create communal “echo chambers” and facilitate hate speech leading to riots. Eg- Delhi Riots

    Withdrawal of the State- As the state withdrew from welfare, communal organizations filled the gap, increasing group loyalty.

    Migration and fear of demographic change- Native populations feel deprived of jobs by “outsiders.” Eg- Communal tensions in Assam due to migration of Bangladeshi muslims

    Inclusive development policies and ethical political leadership are needed to ensure that power competition does not fracture social cohesion and deprivation does not become a communal grievance.

    Miscellaneous

  • Why did human development fail to keep pace with economic development in India?

    While India has emerged as “fastest growing economy” and 4th largest economy, its ranking in HDI, 2025 was 130th out of 193 countries.

    Reasons behind low human development in india

    Jobless growth due to shift from agriculture to service led growth instead of manufacturing led growth. Eg- service sector contributes 55% of GDP but employs only 30% of workforce

    Economic Inequality – richest 1% control more than 40% of total wealth, while the bottom 50% own merely 3% (Oxfam Report)

    Over 90% of the Indian workforce is in the informal sector – lacking social security and stable wages, leading to “working poverty.”

    Social Stratification- Caste-based discrimination prevents upward mobility for the marginalized. Eg- 96% manual scavengers are Dalits

    Population Pressure (1.35 billion) strains public infrastructure, housing, and the job market.

    Poor Social Infrastructure

    Education – low public investment (2.9% of GDP) lead to “quality crisis” and high dropout rates at secondary and higher levels

    Skill Gap – only about 51.25% of youth are employable.

    Gender Disparities

    Low FLFPR – 41% in India vs 71% in China

    Women own only 13% of land while forming 63% of agriculture workforce

    Glass ceiling effect – discrimination and low representation at higher positions

    India ranked 131st out of 148 countries in WEF’s Gender Gap Report

    Regional disparity – Eg- BIMARU states lag behind southern states in human development indicators

    “Climate Inequality” – women and poor are most vulnerable to climatic shocks like heatwaves or disasters. Eg- “climate induced migration” after floods in Assam

    Measures taken for human development in India

    Healthcare and Nutrition

    Ayushman Bharat (PM-JAY)- over 40 crore Ayushman Cards have been issued.

    Over 1.82 lakh primary health centers have been upgraded to “Arogya Mandirs”.

    POSHAN Abhiyaan- targets stunting, wasting, and anemia.

    Education and Skill Development

    NEP 2020- 5+3+3+4 structure and the Academic Bank of Credits (ABC)

    Skill India Mission- trained over 1.63 crore candidates.

    Poverty and Living Standards

    Over 40 crore people were lifted out of multidimensional poverty between 2005 and 2021

    Kerala has been declared officially free from “extreme poverty” in 2025

    Jal Jeevan Mission- Provided tap water to over 14.5 crore rural households

    PM Awas Yojana (PMAY)- Over 4 crore pucca houses have been built

    PM Ujjwala Yojana- Over 10.3 crore LPG connections have been provided

    Financial Inclusion – Over 52 crore bank accounts have been opened

    Way Forward

    Capability Approach- increase expenditure on Health (2.5% of GDP) and Education (6% of GDP)

    Bottom-up Planning – Porto Alegre Brazil Model

    Expand MGNREGA and link with climate-resilient livelihoods (water conservation, afforestation).

    Women Empowerment by adopting best practices like Kerala’s Kudumbshree Model

    Focus on labour intensive sectors like textiles for job creation (Economic survey)

    This can ensure whole of government and life-cycle approach to realise the vision of Viksit Bharat@2047

  • Why is caste identity in India both fluid and static?

    Caste can be defined as a localized, hereditary, and endogamous group characterized by a fixed rank in a ritual hierarchy (Varna).

    Reasons behind fluidity of caste system

    Sanskritization Mobility Process: Lower castes alter domestic customs and dietary rituals to mimic higher castes for upward mobility.

    Decline of Ritual Hierarchy – Notions of purity and pollution have weakened. Eg- Inter-caste dining in urban areas is common

    Occupational Mobility – Caste-occupation linkage has diluted. Eg- Dalits and OBCs in IT, civil services, academia.

    Urbanisation and Migration promote anonymity and mixed social spaces. Eg- Cosmopolitan life in metros like Mumbai and Bengaluru.

    Legal and Constitutional Framework has established equality before law irrespective of caste hierarchy. Eg- Article 14 and Article 17.

    Rise of Individualism – Personal choice gaining prominence over ascriptive identity. Eg- Love marriages, nuclear families.

    Growth of Class-Based Stratification in urban settings. Eg- rise of dalit and OBC Middle Class

    Democratic Electoral Mobilization: Sub-castes merge into political interest blocks, completely altering traditional micro-level hierarchies. Eg: AJGAR alliance in northern India

    Reasons behind static nature of caste identity

    Caste remains a basis for welfare and representation. Eg- Reservations for SCs, STs, and OBCs.

    Occupational hierarchies along caste lines. Eg- 96% manual scavengers are Dalits

    Social Discrimination along caste lines persists. Eg- Hatras rape case or Rohith Vemula death.

    Intersectionality – Caste intersects with gender, religion, and region. Eg- Dalit women facing multiple marginalities.

    New associational forms. Eg- Maratha Kranti Morcha, Patidar Anamat Andolan.

    Caste based economic groups. Eg- Dalit Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (DICCI) promoting “Dalit Capitalism”

    Caste-Based Spatial Segregation (Ghettoization) in modern cities

    Inter-generational Wealth Gap – The Oxfam Inequality Report (2024) highlights that the average wealth of a General Category family is nearly triple that of a Dalit family.

    Understanding contemporary India therefore requires recognising caste not as a static relic, but as a dynamic and evolving social reality operating alongside class, gender, religion, and region.

    Population and Migration