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Subject: Indian Society

  • Analyse the salience of ‘sect’ in Indian society vis-a-vis caste, region and religion.

    In Indian society, sect refers to a religious-spiritual subgroup organised around a shared doctrine, deity, guru, or ritual practice. Unlike caste, region, and religion, which are largely ascriptive identities, sects are voluntary and belief-based.

    Salience of Sect in Indian Society

    Sect vis-a-vis Caste

    Transcending caste boundaries – Eg- Bhakti sects like Kabir Panth rejecting caste distinctions.

    Alternative social identity – Provides dignity to marginalised castes. Eg- Ravidassia sect among Dalits.

    Avenue for Social Mobility- Eg- Many lower-caste groups in North India joined the Arya Samaj to gain social respectability through Vedic education.

    Sects bridge the divide between different castes by focusing on a shared devotion to a guru or deity.

    However, caste infiltration persists. Eg- Vaishnava sects dominated by upper castes in leadership roles.

    Sect vis-a-vis Religion

    Sub-religious pluralism – Sects allow diversity within a single religion.

    Shaiva, Vaishnava, Shakti and Smartism within Hinduism

    Sunni-Shia within Islam.

    Himayana, Mahayana, Vajrayana within Buddhism

    Digambara and swetambara within Jainism

    Personalised spirituality – Emphasis on devotion rather than dogma. Eg- Bhakti and Sufi sects focusing on bhakti and ishq.

    Instrument of reform – Challenges orthodoxy and ritualism. Eg- Buddhism and Jainism emerging as sect-like reform movements.

    Charismatic Leadership (Guru-Cults) – sects are often centered around a living or historical spiritual guide. Eg- Raja Rammohan Roy (Brahmo Samaj)

    Sectarian identity can sometimes create friction. Eg- Friction between Thenkalai and Vadakalai sects over the prayers offered at the Sri Devarajaswamy Temple in Kanchipuram.

    Modern “New Age” sects help urbanites reconnect with their religion in a contemporary, simplified way. Eg- ISKCON (Hare Krishna movement)

    Sect vis-a-vis Region

    Regional localisation of sects – Sects adapt to local languages and cultures. Eg- Varkari sect in Maharashtra, Lingayat sect in Karnataka.

    Cultural integration – Sect strengthens regional identity while retaining pan-Indian appeal. Eg- Chaitanya Mahaprabhu’s Vaishnavism in Bengal.

    Sect builds social cohesion and strong community bonds within a region. Eg- Sikh Panth.

    Sect as a tool of political and social mobilization within a specific region. Eg- Lingayat movement seeking minority religion status.

    The sect occupies a unique intermediate position in Indian society, less rigid than caste, more flexible than religion, and more fluid than region. It has played a crucial role in spiritual democratisation and social cohesion.

  • Child cuddling is now being replaced by mobile phones. Discuss its impact on the socialization of children.

    Socialization is the process through which children internalize values, norms, emotions, and social skills. Increasing substitution of physical affection with mobile phones is reshaping this process.

    Impact on the Socialization of Children

    Negative Impacts

    Excessive digital mediation risks creating “emotionally under-nurtured but digitally over-stimulated” children.

    Weakening of Emotional Bonding – Reduced physical affection hampers secure attachment formation.

    Delayed Emotional Development as screens cannot reciprocate emotions. Eg- Children struggle to recognise empathy, affection, and emotional cues.

    Impaired Language and Communication Skills due to limited verbal interaction.

    Excessive screen use affects self-regulation. Eg- Short attention span and impulsive behaviour.

    Erosion of Family Interaction – Eg- Children engaged with phones during meals instead of conversation.

    Reduced Moral and Value Transmission – Informal teaching through interaction declines. Eg- absence of grand parents in nuclear families

    Social Isolation – Digital engagement replaces real-world relationships.

    Early Consumerist Socialization – Eg- Desire for gadgets and branded products influenced by online media.

    Decline in physical activities lead to health issues. Eg- Roughly 188 million children (1 in 10) are living with obesity in 2025 (UNICEF)

    Positive Impacts

    Early Cognitive Stimulation – Eg- Storytelling and alphabet-learning apps supporting early literacy.

    Digital Social Skills – Familiarity with digital interaction norms prepares children for digital future. Eg- emojis

    Bridging Physical Distance and maintaining emotional bonds with distant family. Eg- Video calls with grandparents.

    Encourages curiosity and self-directed learning. Eg- Interactive games requiring problem-solving.

    Cultural Awareness- Apps expose children to diverse languages and social norms. Eg- learning about Indian history through an educational YouTube series.

    Healthy socialization requires balanced parenting, where human touch and attention remain central, and screens are used sparingly and purposefully.

  • Discuss the impact of post-liberal economy on ethnic identity and communalism.

    The phase after 1991 economic reforms was marked by market liberalization, privatization, globalization, and reduced state control. It also reshaped social relations.

    Impact on Ethnic Identity

    Positive Impacts

    New states were created to give ethnic blocks control over resources. Eg- formation of Jharkhand for tribal resource autonomy.

    Better infrastructure and connectivity mainstreaming neglected ethics groups. Eg- tribes from North-East migrating to Delhi for education and employment

    Global Market for Ethnic Goods

    Global demand for Pashmina shawls from Kashmir.

    Revival of the Kanchipuram silk weaving industry.

    Intellectual Property Protection- Eg- GI status Channapatna Toys

    Rise of Cultural Tourism- Eg- Hornbill Festival in Nagaland

    Digital Ethnic Revivals- Eg- use of YouTube by Tulu speakers to promote their language.

    Negative Impacts

    Uneven growth – Disparities sharpen identity consciousness.

    Cultural Homogenization- “MacDonaldization” has replaced ethnic diets and dress with global standards. Eg- decline of millet-based diets.

    Development-Induced Displacement- Eg- Tribal displacement in the Hasdeo forests due to mining.

    Linguistic Dominance- economic necessity of English and Hindi marginalizes local ethnic dialects.

    Resource Exploitation- Eg- desecration of sacred groves and ethnic lands.

    Impact on Communalism

    Positive Impacts

    Economic interdependence – Market ties reduce incentives for conflict. Eg- Inter-community business partnerships in urban clusters.

    Professionalism over Parochialism- Corporate cultures prioritize merit and profit over religious identity.

    Urban plural living – Mixed neighbourhoods foster everyday coexistence. Eg- Apartment cultures in metros.

    Secularization of Public Spaces- Malls, airports, and IT parks act as “identity-neutral” zones.

    Growth of the Rational Middle Class that prioritizes stability and development over conflict.

    Information Transparency- digital age allows for the rapid debunking of communal “rumors” by civil society. Eg- ALT news

    Negative Impacts

    Relative Deprivation-

    Sachar Committee Report (2006) highlighted the lack of Muslims in government jobs, fueling a sense of systemic deprivation.

    Ghettoization and poverty in cities foster “us vs. them” mentalities.

    Digital Polarization- Social media algorithms create communal “echo chambers” and facilitate hate speech leading to riots. Eg- Delhi Riots

    Withdrawal of the State- As the state withdrew from welfare, communal organizations filled the gap, increasing group loyalty.

    Migration and fear of demographic change- Native populations feel deprived of jobs by “outsiders.” Eg- Communal tensions in Assam due to migration of Bangladeshi muslims

    Inclusive development policies and ethical political leadership are needed to ensure that power competition does not fracture social cohesion and deprivation does not become a communal grievance.

    Miscellaneous

  • Why did human development fail to keep pace with economic development in India?

    While India has emerged as “fastest growing economy” and 4th largest economy, its ranking in HDI, 2025 was 130th out of 193 countries.

    Reasons behind low human development in india

    Jobless growth due to shift from agriculture to service led growth instead of manufacturing led growth. Eg- service sector contributes 55% of GDP but employs only 30% of workforce

    Economic Inequality – richest 1% control more than 40% of total wealth, while the bottom 50% own merely 3% (Oxfam Report)

    Over 90% of the Indian workforce is in the informal sector – lacking social security and stable wages, leading to “working poverty.”

    Social Stratification- Caste-based discrimination prevents upward mobility for the marginalized. Eg- 96% manual scavengers are Dalits

    Population Pressure (1.35 billion) strains public infrastructure, housing, and the job market.

    Poor Social Infrastructure

    Education – low public investment (2.9% of GDP) lead to “quality crisis” and high dropout rates at secondary and higher levels

    Skill Gap – only about 51.25% of youth are employable.

    Gender Disparities

    Low FLFPR – 41% in India vs 71% in China

    Women own only 13% of land while forming 63% of agriculture workforce

    Glass ceiling effect – discrimination and low representation at higher positions

    India ranked 131st out of 148 countries in WEF’s Gender Gap Report

    Regional disparity – Eg- BIMARU states lag behind southern states in human development indicators

    “Climate Inequality” – women and poor are most vulnerable to climatic shocks like heatwaves or disasters. Eg- “climate induced migration” after floods in Assam

    Measures taken for human development in India

    Healthcare and Nutrition

    Ayushman Bharat (PM-JAY)- over 40 crore Ayushman Cards have been issued.

    Over 1.82 lakh primary health centers have been upgraded to “Arogya Mandirs”.

    POSHAN Abhiyaan- targets stunting, wasting, and anemia.

    Education and Skill Development

    NEP 2020- 5+3+3+4 structure and the Academic Bank of Credits (ABC)

    Skill India Mission- trained over 1.63 crore candidates.

    Poverty and Living Standards

    Over 40 crore people were lifted out of multidimensional poverty between 2005 and 2021

    Kerala has been declared officially free from “extreme poverty” in 2025

    Jal Jeevan Mission- Provided tap water to over 14.5 crore rural households

    PM Awas Yojana (PMAY)- Over 4 crore pucca houses have been built

    PM Ujjwala Yojana- Over 10.3 crore LPG connections have been provided

    Financial Inclusion – Over 52 crore bank accounts have been opened

    Way Forward

    Capability Approach- increase expenditure on Health (2.5% of GDP) and Education (6% of GDP)

    Bottom-up Planning – Porto Alegre Brazil Model

    Expand MGNREGA and link with climate-resilient livelihoods (water conservation, afforestation).

    Women Empowerment by adopting best practices like Kerala’s Kudumbshree Model

    Focus on labour intensive sectors like textiles for job creation (Economic survey)

    This can ensure whole of government and life-cycle approach to realise the vision of Viksit Bharat@2047

  • Why is caste identity in India both fluid and static?

    Caste can be defined as a localized, hereditary, and endogamous group characterized by a fixed rank in a ritual hierarchy (Varna).

    Reasons behind fluidity of caste system

    Sanskritization Mobility Process: Lower castes alter domestic customs and dietary rituals to mimic higher castes for upward mobility.

    Decline of Ritual Hierarchy – Notions of purity and pollution have weakened. Eg- Inter-caste dining in urban areas is common

    Occupational Mobility – Caste-occupation linkage has diluted. Eg- Dalits and OBCs in IT, civil services, academia.

    Urbanisation and Migration promote anonymity and mixed social spaces. Eg- Cosmopolitan life in metros like Mumbai and Bengaluru.

    Legal and Constitutional Framework has established equality before law irrespective of caste hierarchy. Eg- Article 14 and Article 17.

    Rise of Individualism – Personal choice gaining prominence over ascriptive identity. Eg- Love marriages, nuclear families.

    Growth of Class-Based Stratification in urban settings. Eg- rise of dalit and OBC Middle Class

    Democratic Electoral Mobilization: Sub-castes merge into political interest blocks, completely altering traditional micro-level hierarchies. Eg: AJGAR alliance in northern India

    Reasons behind static nature of caste identity

    Caste remains a basis for welfare and representation. Eg- Reservations for SCs, STs, and OBCs.

    Occupational hierarchies along caste lines. Eg- 96% manual scavengers are Dalits

    Social Discrimination along caste lines persists. Eg- Hatras rape case or Rohith Vemula death.

    Intersectionality – Caste intersects with gender, religion, and region. Eg- Dalit women facing multiple marginalities.

    New associational forms. Eg- Maratha Kranti Morcha, Patidar Anamat Andolan.

    Caste based economic groups. Eg- Dalit Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (DICCI) promoting “Dalit Capitalism”

    Caste-Based Spatial Segregation (Ghettoization) in modern cities

    Inter-generational Wealth Gap – The Oxfam Inequality Report (2024) highlights that the average wealth of a General Category family is nearly triple that of a Dalit family.

    Understanding contemporary India therefore requires recognising caste not as a static relic, but as a dynamic and evolving social reality operating alongside class, gender, religion, and region.

    Population and Migration

  • Does urbanization lead to more segregation and/or marginalization of the poor in Indian metropolises?

    40% of India’s population is expected to reside in urban areas by 2030 (NITI Aayog). However, this growth has often been uneven and exclusionary rather than inclusive.

    Urbanization Leading to Segregation and Marginalization

    Arguments In Favor

    Gated Communities – Eg- separate elevators and entryways for domestic staff.

    Infrastructure-Induced Displacement (Gentrification)- Eg- Dharavi redevelopment project

    “Ghettoization”– systematic exclusion of low-income groups from the social, economic, and physical benefits of the city. Eg- 17% urban population lives in slums

    Limited access to basic amenities like health and education.

    Low-productivity equilibrium – Cities continue to absorb labour, but governance systems fail to integrate workers into formal housing, transport and service networks. (Economic Survey 2025-26)

    Persistence of Caste-Based Segregation- Eg- denial of rental housing to Dalits and Muslims

    The “Poverty Tax”- Eg- Slum dwellers in Pune pay up to 20% more for water per liter than those with piped municipal connections in nearby societies.

    Exclusionary Urban Planning – Master plans prioritise commercial and elite residential zones.

    Social Stigma – Slums viewed as illegal or undesirable spaces.

    Gendered Marginalization – Poor women face compounded exclusion in cities. Eg- Insecure work, unsafe transport, and lack of childcare.

    Arguments Against

    Urban Anonymity – Reduced rigidity of caste and kinship controls.

    Social Mobility- meritocratic nature of cities allow youth from lower strata to bypass traditional social barriers and achieve rapid upward mobility.

    Gig Economy- Platforms like Zepto, Swiggy, and Urban Company provide immediate employment for low-skilled migrants.

    Entrepreneurial Opportunities – Eg- Street vending

    Political Visibility – Urban concentration enables mobilisation. Eg- Slum dwellers’ associations

    Targeted Urban Welfare Schemes to mitigate exclusion. Eg- PM Awas Yojana (Urban), PM SVANidhi

    Way Forward

    Scaling ‘SAHAYOG’ initiative of Odisha government at Pan India level

    Inclusive urban planning with affordable housing near workplaces

    In-situ slum upgrading instead of peripheral relocation

    Universal access to basic services

    Affordable mass transport systems

    With rights-based, inclusive, and people-centric urban policies, cities can instead become spaces of opportunity, dignity, and upward mobility for the urban poor.

  • Explain why suicide among young women is increasing in Indian Society.

    India accounts for approximately 37% of global female suicide deaths. It is now the leading cause of death for Indian women aged 15-39.

    Causes Behind Increasing Suicide Among Young Women

    Housewives – over 50% of suicides

    Marriage-related pressures and domestic violence

    social isolation, lack of economic agency, and the “unseen” nature of domestic labor

    Students

    Academic and career stress – Rising aspirations without sufficient support. Eg- Student suicides in Kota.

    Inadequate counselling facilities in schools, colleges, and hostels.

    Working women

    Cyberbullying and Online harassment culture affect self-worth. Eg- Trolling, non-consensual sharing of images.

    Workplace discrimination and sexual harassment

    Social causes

    Intersectional vulnerabilities – Caste, class, and rural disadvantage intensify distress. Eg- Dalit and rural women

    Patriarchal control – Restrictions on mobility, education, and choice generate helplessness. Eg- Family opposition to inter-caste or inter-faith relationships.

    Child Marriages – 23% women are married before 18 (NFHS-5) – exposes them to abusive relationship

    Weak institutional support systems –

    Mental health neglect and stigma – Depression and anxiety often go undiagnosed and untreated.

    India has 0.75 psychiatrist per 1 lakh people (global avg – 13)

    Way Forward

    Implementation of National Suicide Prevention Strategy to reduce suicide mortality by 10% by 2030.

    WHO’s “LIVE LIFE” Approach- limiting access to means , responsible media reporting to prevent “copycat” suicides, and fostering life skills in adolescents.

    Training “frontline” community members like ASHA workers to identify early warning signs and providing counselling.

    Implementing Saha Guidelines for preventing student suicide

    Integrating “Cyber-Safety” and mental health resilience into the school curriculum.

    Workplace Wellness Mandates- Eg- POSH workshops and mental health support

    As highlighted by World Health Organization, suicide is preventable through timely intervention and supportive environments.

  • Do you think marriage as a sacrament in losing its value in Modern India?

    Traditionally, marriage in India has been viewed as a sacrament, symbolising a lifelong, sacred, and indissoluble bond. However, social change has led to a re-evaluation of this sacramental character.

    Marriage as a sacrament losing its value

    The increasing legal and social acceptance of divorce contradicts the sacramental view of marriage as an “eternal union.”

    Decline in the role of family in marital decisions highlights the changing nature of marriage from “duty” to personal choice.

    Rising median age of marriage for women (NFHS-5) highlights preference for education and careers over marriage

    Shift toward “Symmetrical Families” – Traditional hierarchy (Husband as God/Pati-Parmeshwar) is being replaced by egalitarian partnerships. Eg- rise in “dual income” households

    Emergence of Live-in Relationships – The growing preference for cohabitation without religious rituals directly bypasses the sacramental requirement.

    Economic Independence of Women – As per Leela Dube, as women gain property rights and careers, they prioritize “self-respect” over the “sacramental duty” to remain in dysfunctional marriages.

    “De-ritualization” (Yogendra Singh) – Marriage has shifted from a religious rite to a “Big Fat Indian Wedding” focused on conspicuous consumption.

    Commercialization of marriage. Eg- rise of matchmaking sites like shaadi.com

    However, sacramental value still persists

    Continued Importance of Rituals – Eg- Performance of saptapadi, mangalsutra, kanyadaan.

    Persistence of endogamy and arranged marriages

    Marriage remains a key marker of adulthood. Eg- Social pressure to marry across regions.

    Despite the increase, divorce remains low compared to global standards.

    Marriage is still valued as the foundation of family and society.

    The sacramental view is still strong in rural and semi-urban areas.

    Reinterpretation Rather than Rejection – Eg- Love marriages solemnised with traditional rituals.

    SC’s decision to not recognise “same sex marriages” (Supriyo v. Union of India) highlight sacramental value of marriage

    Marriage as a pure sacrament is undergoing transformation in modern India, but it is not losing its value entirely. As Yogendra Singh suggests, we are witnessing a “Modernization of Tradition.”

  • Critically analyse the proposition that there is a high correlation between India’s cultural diversities and socio-economic marginalities.

    India is one of the most culturally diverse countries in the world, characterised by numerous ethnicities, religions, languages, castes, tribes, and regional identities.

    Correlation between India’s cultural diversities and socio-economic marginalities

    Historical Discrimination Legacy in land ownership, credit access, and human capital that correlate with cultural identities.

    Occupational Lock-ins – Traditional caste or community occupations persist, limiting upward mobility. Eg- 96% manual scavengers are Dalits

    Limited Political Voice – Smaller cultural groups historically underrepresented in power structures, affecting resources and development priorities. Eg- <10% SC, STs in secretariat position in GoI

    Tribal communities (Adivasis) living in remote belts face poor education, health, and infrastructure access.

    Geographical Isolation – Culturally distinct groups in hilly or forested areas often lack services and markets. Eg- lack of connectivity in North-East

    Regional disparity – Eg- BIMARU states lag behind southern states in human development indicators

    Minority Religious Communities show lower education and employment outcomes as highlighted in the Sachar Committee report. Eg- higher % of muslim undertrails in Jail

    Linguistic Marginalization – Proficiency in English (a cultural/class marker) creates a divide between the “globalized elite” and those restricted to regional languages.

    Marginalization of transgenders and LGBTQ due to social discrimination and lack of access to basic amenities like health, education

    Other factors for Socio-Economic marginalities

    Economic Inequality – richest 1% control more than 40% of total wealth, while the bottom 50% own merely 3% (Oxfam Report)

    Rural-Urban Divide – Consumption and wage gaps.

    Infrastructure Deficits – Poor connectivity, electricity, and sanitation in backward districts hinder productivity.

    Gender Pay Gap – Women continue to earn significantly less than men

    Policy Implementation Gaps – affirmative policies sometimes fail to reach intended beneficiaries due to bureaucratic and governance bottlenecks. Eg- inclusion-exclusion errors in PDS

    However, cultural diversity has also helped in addressing socio-economic marginalities

    Affirmative action policies

    Reservation for SC, ST, OBC

    Tribal specific schemes like Van Dhan Scheme

    Rise of “Dalit Capitalism”

    Certain minority groups are among the most economically prosperous in India. Eg- Parsi and Jain communities

    Caste-Based Political Mobilization for claiming state resources and welfare. Eg- rise of OBC politics

    With improved data (caste census), better governance, and targeted policies, diversity can be transformed from a potential vulnerability into a driver of inclusive growth.

    Caste

  • Despite comprehensive policies for equity and social justice, underprivileged sections are not yet getting the full benefits of affirmative action envisaged by the Constitution. Comment.

    The Constitution envisages substantive equality to correct historical injustices faced by vulnerable groups. However, despite being the 4th largest economy, India’s ranking in HDI, 2025 was 130th out of 193 countries.

    Policies for equity and social justice

    Constitutional provisions – Articles 14, 15(4), 15(5), 16(4), 17, 46

    Reservations in education, public employment, and political representation

    Protective legislation – SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act

    Targeted welfare schemes

    Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan

    MGNREGA

    Ayushman Bharat

    PM-JANMAN (for PVTGs)

    SHRESHTA (high-quality residential education for SCs).

    Institutional mechanisms – National Commissions for SCs, STs, OBCs

    UGC Equity Regulations 2026, which mandate anti-discrimination cells in all universities.

    Reasons behind underprivileged sections not getting benefits of affirmative action

    Political factors

    Politicization of affirmative action policies hinders adaptability to changing needs. Eg- high income limit for creamy layer

    Proxy representation – Eg- Sarpanch Pati phenomenon in panchayats

    Short termism and political populism rather than focusing on “empowerment.” Eg- loan waivers, ladli behna etc reduce public investment in health, education etc

    Social factors

    Social Stratification- Caste-based discrimination prevents upward mobility for the marginalized. Eg- 96% manual scavengers are Dalits

    Population Pressure (1.35 billion) strains public infrastructure, housing, and the job market.

    Elite Capture within Beneficiary Groups – Eg- Advanced sections among SCs dominating reserved seats (“class within caste”)

    Regional disparity – Eg- BIMARU states lag behind southern states in human development indicators

    Low Social Capital and Networks – Lack of mentoring and peer support for marginalised students leading to social isolation. Eg- Rohith Vemula

    Glass ceiling effect for women – discrimination and low representation at higher positions

    Economic factors

    Shrinking Public Sector – Eg- Over 90% workforce outside formal government employment where reservation is absent

    Intergenerational Poverty limits health, education outcomes and employment productivity. Eg- stunting and wasting rates among ST children is ~10-15% higher than the national average.

    Economic Inequality – richest 1% control more than 40% of total wealth, while the bottom 50% own merely 3% (Oxfam Report)

    Administrative factors

    Leakages and corruption –

    Inclusion-exclusion errors in PDS (Shanta Kumar committee)

    Ghost beneficiaries in Ayushman Bharat identified by CAG

    Lack of last mile reach due to security issues like naxalism, insurgency etc.

    Poor Social Infrastructure

    Healthcare – low public spending (2.1% of GDP) and high out of pocket expenditure (40%)

    Education – low public investment (2.9% of GDP) lead to “quality crisis” and high dropout rates at secondary and higher levels

    Skill Gap – only about 51.25% of youth are employable.

    Way Forward

    Outcome-Oriented Design – Eg- Aspirational district program

    Better targeting

    Subcategorization within SCs (Davinder Singh case)

    Multi-dimensional Deprivation Index (MDI) for EWS and OBC categories

    Capability Approach- increase expenditure on Health (2.5% of GDP) and Education (6% of GDP)

    Women Empowerment by adopting best practices like Kerala’s Kudumbshree Model

    Focus on Gender-Caste Intersectionality to address the “double burden” of women from underprivileged sections.

    There is need for whole of government and life-cycle approach to realise the vision of Viksit Bharat@2047