The Constitution envisages substantive equality to correct historical injustices faced by vulnerable groups. However, despite being the 4th largest economy, India’s ranking in HDI, 2025 was 130th out of 193 countries.
Policies for equity and social justice
Constitutional provisions – Articles 14, 15(4), 15(5), 16(4), 17, 46
Reservations in education, public employment, and political representation
Protective legislation – SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act
Targeted welfare schemes
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan
MGNREGA
Ayushman Bharat
PM-JANMAN (for PVTGs)
SHRESHTA (high-quality residential education for SCs).
Institutional mechanisms – National Commissions for SCs, STs, OBCs
UGC Equity Regulations 2026, which mandate anti-discrimination cells in all universities.
Reasons behind underprivileged sections not getting benefits of affirmative action
Political factors
Politicization of affirmative action policies hinders adaptability to changing needs. Eg- high income limit for creamy layer
Proxy representation – Eg- Sarpanch Pati phenomenon in panchayats
Short termism and political populism rather than focusing on “empowerment.” Eg- loan waivers, ladli behna etc reduce public investment in health, education etc
Social factors
Social Stratification- Caste-based discrimination prevents upward mobility for the marginalized. Eg- 96% manual scavengers are Dalits
Population Pressure (1.35 billion) strains public infrastructure, housing, and the job market.
Elite Capture within Beneficiary Groups – Eg- Advanced sections among SCs dominating reserved seats (“class within caste”)
Regional disparity – Eg- BIMARU states lag behind southern states in human development indicators
Low Social Capital and Networks – Lack of mentoring and peer support for marginalised students leading to social isolation. Eg- Rohith Vemula
Glass ceiling effect for women – discrimination and low representation at higher positions
Economic factors
Shrinking Public Sector – Eg- Over 90% workforce outside formal government employment where reservation is absent
Intergenerational Poverty limits health, education outcomes and employment productivity. Eg- stunting and wasting rates among ST children is ~10-15% higher than the national average.
Economic Inequality – richest 1% control more than 40% of total wealth, while the bottom 50% own merely 3% (Oxfam Report)
Administrative factors
Leakages and corruption –
Inclusion-exclusion errors in PDS (Shanta Kumar committee)
Ghost beneficiaries in Ayushman Bharat identified by CAG
Lack of last mile reach due to security issues like naxalism, insurgency etc.
Poor Social Infrastructure
Healthcare – low public spending (2.1% of GDP) and high out of pocket expenditure (40%)
Education – low public investment (2.9% of GDP) lead to “quality crisis” and high dropout rates at secondary and higher levels
Skill Gap – only about 51.25% of youth are employable.
Way Forward
Outcome-Oriented Design – Eg- Aspirational district program
Better targeting
Subcategorization within SCs (Davinder Singh case)
Multi-dimensional Deprivation Index (MDI) for EWS and OBC categories
Capability Approach- increase expenditure on Health (2.5% of GDP) and Education (6% of GDP)
Women Empowerment by adopting best practices like Kerala’s Kudumbshree Model
Focus on Gender-Caste Intersectionality to address the “double burden” of women from underprivileged sections.
There is need for whole of government and life-cycle approach to realise the vision of Viksit Bharat@2047
