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Type: Prelims Only

  • Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

    [pib] Mahatma Ayyankali (1863–1941)

    Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History

    Why in the News?

    On his Jayanti (August 28), PM paid tribute to Mahatma Ayyankali.

    About Mahatma Ayyankali:

    • Birth: August 28, 1863, in Venganoor, Travancore (present-day Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala).
    • Community: Belonged to the Pulayar caste, among the most oppressed and excluded groups.
    • Background: Faced severe caste discrimination despite family owning land; denied access to temples, schools, roads, and public spaces.
    • Legacy: Remembered as a Dalit leader of modern Kerala and a pioneer of social justice, education, and labour rights.

    Key Reforms and Contributions:

    • Caste Defiance: Famous Villuvandi Yatra (1893) – ox-cart ride on caste-restricted roads, triggering riots but also mass mobilization for Dalit rights.
    • Education Movement: Demanded access for Dalit children to public schools; Travancore government issued 1907 order allowing entry, implemented by 1910.
    • Sadhu Jana Paripalana Sangham (SJPS): Founded in 1907 to promote Dalit education, legal aid, and social upliftment; expanded into hundreds of branches.
    • Legislative Role: In 1910, became the first Dalit member of the Sree Moolam Popular Assembly (Travancore Legislative Council).
    • Labour Reforms: Fought for higher wages and dignity for agricultural labourers.
    • Social Reforms: Campaigned for Dalit women’s right to cover their upper bodies in public, a practice denied earlier.
    • Temple Entry Movement: Early campaigns from 1895 onwards contributed to the 1936 Temple Entry Proclamation, ending exclusion of Dalits from temples in Travancore.
    • Recognition: Admired by Mahatma Gandhi, who called him the “Pulaya King”. Indira Gandhi later hailed him as “India’s greatest son”.
    [UPSC 2025] Who among the following was the founder of the ‘Self-Respect Movement’?

    Options: (a) ‘Periyar’ E. V. Ramaswamy Naicker * (b) Dr. B. R. Ambedkar (c) Bhaskarrao Jadhav (d) Dinkarrao Javalkar

     

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  • Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

    [pib] Nuakhai Festival

    Prelims Only | Art and Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

    Why in the News?

    PM extended wishes to the Odia-speaking communities on the occasion of Nuakhai.

    About Nuakhai Festival:

    • Meaning: Derived from “Nua” (new) and “Khai” (food); literally “new food”, marking the first consumption of freshly harvested rice.
    • Region: Celebrated mainly in Western Odisha and also observed in parts of Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand by Odia-speaking communities.
    • Significance: Agrarian thanksgiving to deities, ancestors, and the earth; symbol of prosperity, good harvest, and family unity.
    • Date: Observed on Bhadraba Sukla Panchami (5th day after Ganesh Chaturthi).
    • Historical Roots: Traces to Vedic rituals of first grain offerings (Pralambana yajna); formalized in the 14th century by Raja Ramai Deo of Patna State, Sambalpur.
    • Social Role: Strengthens community bonds; people greet with “Nuakhai Juhar”, reconcile disputes, and seek elders’ blessings.

    Festivities and Cultural Elements:

    • Preparations: Begin 15 days in advance; involve nine ritual steps (Navaranga) such as fixing the date, cleaning homes, harvesting grain, offering puja, and sharing food.
    • Ritual Practice: Family head or priest performs puja, offering the first grain to the local deity, followed by distribution within the family.
    • Cultural Celebrations: Sambalpuri folk dances like Rasarkeli, Dalkhai, Maelajada, Sajani; folk songs praising harvest and community spirit.
    [UPSC 2018] Consider the following pairs: Tradition | State

    1. Chapchar Kut festival — Mizoram

    2. Khongjom Parba ballad — Manipur

    3. Thong-To dance — Sikkim

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2* (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3

     

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  • Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

    United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    This year marks three decades since the landmark Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, which established the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

    About United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED):

    • Event: Also called the Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (June 3–14, 1992).
    • Participation: 178 countries, 117 heads of state, thousands of NGOs and civil society groups.
    • Objective: Reconcile economic growth with environmental protection, mainstreaming sustainable development globally.
    • Key Outcomes:
      • Rio Declaration (27 principles, including precautionary principle & Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR)).
      • Agenda 21 (non-binding action plan for sustainable development).
      • UNFCCC (binding treaty on climate change; later Kyoto Protocol, Paris Agreement).
      • Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (binding treaty on biodiversity).
      • Statement of Forest Principles (non-binding guidelines for sustainable forests).
      • Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) created to monitor implementation.
    • Significance: Landmark in international environmental diplomacy, embedding sustainability in global policy and leading to follow-ups (Rio+10, Rio+20).

    India and UNCED:

    • Stance & Advocacy:
      • Strongly pushed for Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR); developed nations must bear greater responsibility due to historical emissions and resource use.
      • Emphasized poverty eradication and the right to economic growth for developing countries.
      • Called for financial support and technology transfer from developed countries to the Global South.
    • Commitments:
      • Signed & ratified all key Rio agreements: Rio Declaration, Agenda 21, UNFCCC, CBD.
    • Domestic Follow-up:
      • Integrated Agenda 21 principles into national policies (sustainable resource use, biodiversity protection, EIAs).
      • Strengthened environmental legislation under the Environment Protection Act (1986).
    • Role: Positioned itself as a voice of developing countries, balancing environment with development imperatives.
    [UPSC 2010] The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international treaty drawn at-

    Options:

    (a) United Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm, 1972

    (b) UN Conference on Environment and Development, Rio De Janerio, 1992 *

    (c) World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, 2002

    (d) UN Climate Change Conference, Copenhagen, 2009

     

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  • ISRO Missions and Discoveries

    Kulasekarapattinam Launch Complex

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    ISRO Chairman V. Narayanan announced that the upcoming rocket launching site at Kulasekarapattinam (Tamil Nadu) will handle 20–25 satellite launches annually.

    Kulasekarapattinam Launch Complex

    About Kulasekarapattinam Spaceport:

    • Location: Coastal hamlet near Tiruchendur, Thoothukudi district, Tamil Nadu; inaugurated by PM in February 2024.
    • Second Spaceport: India’s second spaceport after Satish Dhawan Space Centre (Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh, 1971).
    • Capacity: Can handle 20–25 launches annually, including 24 launches using a Mobile Launch Structure.
    • Focus: Dedicated to Small Satellite Launch Vehicles (SSLVs), with capacity to launch rockets up to 500 kg.
    • Facilities: About 35 facilities including launch pad, rocket integration units, ground range, checkout systems, and Mobile Launch Structure with onboard checkout computers.

    Advantages offered by Kulasekarapattinam Spaceport:

    • Direct Southward Launches: Location allows launches into the Indian Ocean without crossing landmasses; ensures more safety from debris fall.
    • No Dogleg Manoeuvre: Unlike Sriharikota, no detour is needed to avoid Sri Lanka, saving fuel.
    • Efficient Trajectory: Improves efficiency for satellites in Sun-Synchronous Polar Orbits (SSPOs).
    • Payload Advantage: SSLVs from Kulasekarapattinam can place ~300 kg into SSPO, higher than from Sriharikota.
    • Decongestion: Reduces pressure on Sriharikota, which will focus on larger PSLV, GSLV, and Gaganyaan launches.
    • Commercial Boost: Strengthens India’s role in the global small-satellite launch market, enhancing space economy.
    • Strategic Advantage: Near-equator position provides benefits for certain orbital paths.
    [UPSC 2008] ISRO successfully conducted a rocket test using cryogenic engines in the year 2007. Where is the test-stand used for the purpose, located?

    Options: (a) Balasore (b) Thiruvananthapuram (c) Mahendragiri* (d) Karwar

     

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  • Indian Army Updates

    [pib] Exercise ‘BRIGHT STAR 2025’

    Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Various Security Forces, Agencies & Their Mandates

    Why in the News?

    India is set to participate with over 700 personnel from tri-services for 19th edition of Exercise Bright Star 2025 in Egypt.

    About Exercise Bright Star:

    • Origin: Began in 1980 as a US–Egypt bilateral drill after the Egypt–Israel peace treaty.
    • Nature: Now one of the largest and longest-running multinational tri-service military exercises in the Middle East.
    • Frequency: Held biennially in Egypt with the United States as the principal partner.
    • Objectives:
      • Enhance regional security and stability.
      • Improve jointness, interoperability, and operational coordination among partner nations.

    Key Highlights of the 2025 Edition:

    • Scale: Approximate 7,900 troops from 43 nations.
      • 13 countries directly deploying troops.
      • 30 countries participating as observers.
    • Strategic Significance:
      • Builds defence cooperation between India, Egypt, US, and partner nations.
      • Important amid West Asia, Red Sea, and Gulf security challenges.
    [UPSC 2024] Which of the following statements about ‘Exercise Mitra Shakti-2023’ are correct?

    1. This was a joint military exercise between India and Bangladesh.

    2. It commenced in Aundh (Pune).

    3. Joint response during counter-terrorism operations was a goal of this operation.

    4. Indian Air Force was a part of this exercise.

    Select the answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 4 (c) 1 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4*

     

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  • Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

    Gangotri Glacier System (GGS) shrinks 10% in 4 decades

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    A recent IIT Indore study shows that climate change has caused a 10% shrinkage in the Gangotri Glacier System over four decades, altering snowmelt and hydrology.

    Gangotri Glacier System (GGS) shrinks 10% in 4 decades

    About Gangotri Glacier System (GGS):

    • Location: Uttarkashi District, Uttarakhand, in the Central Garhwal Himalayas.
    • Origin: Near the Chaukhamba massif at ~7,000 metres above sea level.
    • Size: Main trunk 30–32 km long, 2–4 km wide, with a total glacierized area of ~252 sq. km.
    • Snout: Known as Gaumukh (“cow’s mouth”), source of the Bhagirathi River, which later merges with the Alaknanda at Devprayag to form the Ganga.
    • Tributaries: Includes Chaturangi, Raktavarn, Meru, Rudugaira, Kedar, and Vasuki glaciers.
    • Type: Valley-type glacier with granite, gneiss, and schist bedrock.
    • Features: Moraines, supraglacial lakes, crevasses, and avalanche fans.
    • Debris Cover: 20–24% of the glacier area is debris-covered, affecting melting rates.

    Key Findings of the IIT Indore Study (1980–2020):

    • Flow Contribution: Snowmelt 64%, glacier melt 21%, rainfall-runoff 11%, base flow 4%.
    • Decline in Snowmelt Share: From 73% in 1980–90 to 63% in 2010–20, reflecting climate change impact.
    • Temperature Rise: Mean annual temperature increased by 0.5°C in 2001–2020 compared to 1980–2000.
    • Shift in Peak Discharge: From August to July since the 1990s due to earlier melting and reduced winter precipitation.
    • Snowmelt Rebound: During 2010–2020, colder winters (–2°C) and higher winter precipitation (262 mm) increased snow accumulation.
    [UPSC 2019] Consider the following pairs:

    Glacier: River

    1. Bandarpunch -Yamuna

    2. Bara Shigri -Chenab

    3. Milam -Mandakini

    4. Siachen -Nubra

    5. Zemu -Manas

    Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?

    Options: (a) 1, 2 and 4* (b) 1, 3 and 4 (c) 2 and 5 (d) 3 and 5

     

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  • International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

    SpaceX’s Starship completes critical test flight

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    SpaceX’s Starship has completed its first fully successful test flight after a series of failures.

    SpaceX’s Starship completes critical test flight

    About SpaceX Starship:

    • Design: A two-stage heavy-lift launch vehicle built to carry crew and cargo to Earth orbit, the Moon, Mars, and beyond.
    • Developer: SpaceX, founded by Elon Musk, with the vision of enabling interplanetary travel and colonisation.
    • Size: Nearly 120 metres tall with booster, making it the largest rocket ever built and flown. Taller than Saturn V (111 m) and India’s Qutub Minar (72.5 m).
    • Historic Test Flight: On 27 August 2025, achieved its first fully successful flight. Booster splashed down in the Gulf of Mexico, spacecraft reached the Indian Ocean.
    • Role in NASA Missions: Critical to Artemis Program for returning humans to the Moon and later missions to Mars.
    • Long-term Goal: Make Starship fully and rapidly reusable, cutting costs and redefining space travel.

    Key Features of Starship:

    • Two-Stage Rocket System:
      • Super Heavy booster powered by 33 Raptor engines generating 74 meganewtons of thrust, nearly double NASA’s SLS and twice Saturn V.
      • Engines burn liquid oxygen and methane, enabling deep-space use and Mars resource utilisation.
      • Booster fully reusable, capable of atmospheric re-entry and recovery.
      • Six Raptor engines and four landing fins, designed for full reusability on long-duration missions.
    • Payload Capacity: Can carry up to 150 tonnes to Low-Earth Orbit and over 100 tonnes to the Moon and Mars, more than all soft-landed lunar payloads combined.
    • Cost Reduction Potential: Estimated to deliver 100 tonnes of cargo to Mars for ~$50 million, compared to NASA Shuttle’s $1.5 billion per launch with far less payload.
    [UPSC 2025] Consider the following space missions:

    I. Axiom-4 II. SpaDeX III. Gaganyaan

    How many of the space missions given above encourage and support microgravity research?

    Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All the three* (d) None

     

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  • Promoting Science and Technology – Missions,Policies & Schemes

    Samudrayaan Mission

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

    Why in the News?

    Two Indian aquanauts dived over 5,000 m in the Atlantic aboard French vessel Nautile, as part of India’s Samudrayaan Mission.

    What is Deep Ocean Mission (DOM)?

    • Approved: 2021 by the Union Cabinet, with a budget of ₹4,077 crore for 5 years.
    • Aim: Explore, conserve, and sustainably use deep-ocean resources to support India’s Blue Economy.
    • Six Components:
      • Develop technologies for deep-sea mining, submersibles, and robotics.
      • Ocean climate change advisory service with observations + predictive models.
      • Deep-sea biodiversity exploration and conservation.
      • Surveys for polymetallic nodules and minerals.
      • Energy & freshwater extraction technologies from oceans.
      • Advanced Marine Station for ocean biology & engineering → to bridge research & industry.

    About Samudrayaan Mission:

    • Nature: India’s first crewed deep-sea exploration mission.
    • Objective: To send 3 humans up to 6,000 m depth into the central Indian Ocean by 2027.
    • Vehicle: Crewed submersible Matsya-6000 (fish-shaped, 2.1 m personal sphere).
      • Capacity: 3 aquanauts.
      • Endurance: 12 hours normal + 96 hours emergency life support.
      • Material: Titanium alloy sphere (80 mm thickness) to withstand ~600x atmospheric pressure.
    • Coordinating Agency: National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT), Ministry of Earth Sciences.
    • Strategic Significance: Will place India among a select group of countries (US, Russia, China, Japan, France) with human deep-sea exploration capability.

    Progress made so far:

    • Aquanaut Training: Discussed above.
    • Matsya-6000 Development:
      • Successfully wet tested in Feb 2025.
      • Titanium alloy sphere fabrication ongoing at ISRO using electron beam welding.
      • Initial steel test sphere used for 500 m trials.
    • Technology Development:
      • Indigenous acoustic telephone built for underwater communication (works in open ocean after initial failures).
      • Life-support systems designed to maintain 20% oxygen and scrub CO₂.
    • Next Steps:
      • Human test dive at 500 m depth planned before full 6,000 m mission.
      • Full Samudrayaan launch targeted by 2027.
    [UPSC 2021] Consider the following statements:

    1.The Global Ocean Commission grants licenses for seabed exploration and mining in international waters.

    2.India has received licenses for seabed mineral exploration in international waters.

    3. ‘Rare earth minerals’ are present on the seafloor in international waters.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    Options:(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3

     

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  • Urban Floods

    Rivers, Dams, and Headworks of Punjab

    Prelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

    Why in the news?

    Floods hit Punjab villages due to heavy rain in Himachal, high dam discharges (Bhakra, Pong, Ranjit Sagar), and regulated headworks flow.

    Rivers, Dams, and Headworks of Punjab

    About the Rivers, Dams, and Headworks of Punjab:

    River Origin & Entry into Punjab Major Dam (Location & Key Facts) Headworks & Functions
    Sutlej Origin: Rakshastal Lake (Tibet); enters India at Shipki La (HP); enters Punjab at Rupnagar; joins Beas at Harike, then Chenab in Pakistan. Bhakra Dam (near Nangal, HP–Punjab border).

    One of India’s highest gravity dams; reservoir = Gobind Sagar Lake; irrigation + hydropower.

    		 Ropar: Feeds Sirhind & BML canals (Punjab + Haryana).

    Harike: Diverts Sutlej–Beas water to Rajasthan & Punjab canals.

    Hussainiwala: Feeds Bikaner & Eastern Canals (Punjab + Rajasthan).
    Beas Origin: Beas Kund (Rohtang Pass, HP); enters Punjab near Mukerian (Hoshiarpur); flows via Hoshiarpur, Gurdaspur, Tarn Taran, Amritsar. Pong Dam (Maharana Pratap Sagar), HP (Kangra).

    Major irrigation + power dam; supplies Harike.

    		 Harike: Regulates Beas + Sutlej water; feeds Rajasthan & Punjab canals.
    Ravi Origin: Bara Banghal (Rohtang Pass, HP); enters Punjab near Pathankot; flows via Pathankot, Gurdaspur;

    Enters Pakistan and joins Chenab.

    		 Ranjit Sagar Dam (Thein Dam), Pathankot (Punjab–J&K border). Irrigation + hydropower. Madhopur: Feeds UBDC canal (Punjab).

    Madhopur–Beas Link: Transfers surplus Ravi to Beas before Pakistan.

     

    [UPSC 2021] With reference to the Indus river system, among the following four rivers, one of them joins the Indus directly:

    Options: (a) Chenab (b) Jhelum (c) Ravi (d) Sutlej*

     

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  • Monsoon Updates

    Mawsynram and Cherrapunji no longer Wettest Places in India

    Prelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

    Why in the News?

    Cherrapunji and Mawsynram have recorded about 50% below normal rainfall this year.

    About the Wettest Places in India:

    • Cherrapunji (Sohra, East Khasi Hills, Meghalaya) and Mawsynram (same district) are globally known as the wettest places on Earth.
    • Average annual rainfall: ~11,000–12,000 mm.
    • World record events:
      • Highest annual rainfall: Mawsynram holds the record for highest annual rainfall.
      • Heaviest rainfall: Cherrapunji recorded 2,493 mm in 48 hours (June 1995), one of the heaviest rainfalls ever documented.

    Comparative Rainfall Data (for 2025 Monsoon Season):

    • Cherrapunji (Sohra): ~3,500 mm (≈50% deficit from normal).
    • Surlabbi (Kodagu, Karnataka): ~7,300 mm (highest in India this year).
    • Tamhini (Maharashtra): 5,788 mm (June–July).
    • Trend: At least 32 stations across India received more rainfall than Cherrapunji in June–July 2025.
    • Historical Low for Sohra: 5,401 mm in 1962 → 2025 may break this record if deficit continues.

    Why Mawsynram /Cherrapunji receive such high rainfall?

    • Geographical Location: Lies on the southern slopes of the Khasi Hills, directly facing the Bay of Bengal branch of the southwest monsoon.
    • Orographic Effect: Moist monsoon winds hit the steep hills, rise rapidly, and cause heavy orographic rainfall.
    • Monsoon Duration: Receives rainfall almost continuously from June to September, with frequent cloudbursts.
    • Topography: Steep hills + valleys act as a trap for moisture-laden winds, leading to intense rainfall concentration.
    • Climatic Setting: Part of the Humid Subtropical/Monsoonal climate zone of Northeast India, with high moisture inflow.
    [UPSC 2015] Consider the following States:

    1. Arunachal Pradesh 2. Himachal Pradesh 3. Mizoram

    In which of the above States do ‘Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests’ occur?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only* (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

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