As per data by RBI, in the period 2016-2020, the average food inflation was 2.9 percent. This has more than doubled in the 2020s to an average of 6.3 percent. It reached as high as 8.7 percent in April 2024.    

Causes of persistently high food inflation in India:

1. Supply and Demand Imbalances: Factors such as extreme weather events, crop failures, or pest infestations can reduce the supply of agricultural products, driving up prices. Conversely, a surge in demand, perhaps due to population growth or changes in consumer preferences, can also lead to higher prices if supply cannot keep up.
2. Temperature and Weather Challenges: Issues like adverse weather conditions, weak monsoons, and heatwaves led to cereal and pulse double-digit inflation in April 2024.
3. Fuel Price rise: An increase in fuel inflation by 1% leads to a 0.13% rise in food inflation, and the effect slowly declines through the next 12 months.
4. Post Harvest Losses: Approx 74 million tonnes of food is lost in India each year primarily due to inadequate storage and cold chain management further adding to food inflation.
5. Increase in input cost:  A report by the Fertilizer Association of India(2023) highlighted a 25% increase in fertilizer prices due to global supply chain issues.
6. Government Policies: E.g. Minimum Support Price leads to higher market prices for food grains and limits on stock holdings of essential commodities may lead to market speculation and artificial scarcity, spiking prices.
7. Trade Policies: Restrictions on imports can limit the variety of available food products and potentially drive up prices.

Effectiveness of the monetary policy of the RBI to control this type of inflation:

1. Inflation Targeting: By focusing on headline inflation, which includes food and fuel prices, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) can anchor inflation expectations and prevent food inflation from spiraling into general inflation
2. Indirect Impact of Interest Rate Adjustments on Food Inflation:  By adjusting the repo rate, the RBI influences liquidity in the market, which in turn affects consumer demand.
3. Exchange Rate Management and Imported Food Inflation: In 2021, global food prices surged, especially edible oils. The RBI’s management of the exchange rate helped soften the impact of these global price hikes on domestic food inflation, though not fully.
4. Transmission of Monetary Policy to Agricultural Sector Credit: Monetary easing during 2020-2021, which lowered interest rates, helped to maintain credit flow to the agricultural sector during the pandemic. 

However, Monetary policy faces certain limitations as:

1. Food inflation in India is often driven by supply-side factors, such as poor infrastructure (irrigation, roads, cold storage), inefficient distribution systems, hoarding, and agricultural productivity issues.
2. Seasonal fluctuations in food prices (driven by rainfall, crop output, and global food prices) often deviate from the general inflation trend.
3. Fiscal Policy Impact – Eg- Government providing higher MSP
4. Effectiveness also depends on external factors such as global commodity markets and oil prices, over which the RBI has limited control.
5. High Share of Food in Consumption Basket: In emerging economies like India, where food constitutes a large portion of household expenditure (around 45% or more), food inflation directly affects overall inflation, making it harder for monetary policy alone to control it​
6. Lagged Impact: Monetary policy actions like interest rate hikes may take several quarters to influence inflation. However, food price shocks tend to be more immediate, meaning that monetary policy adjustments may not be timely enough to prevent short-term inflation spikes​

Government Measures Complementing RBI’s Monetary Policy:

1. Improving agricultural infrastructure like irrigation, cold storage, and rural roads.
2. Price stabilization measures such as buffer stock management through the Food Corporation of India (FCI).

Therefore as noted by Reserve Bank of India “the persistence of food inflation underscores the need for effective policy measures that address both demand and supply dynamics.

Indian constitution envisions a welfare state under Article 38 of the constitution which is reflected in public expenditure on social services. In the post-reforms period the public expenditure on social services increased from 5.49% of GDP in 1990-91 to 8.3% in 2021-22.

Patterns and trends of public expenditure on social services:

1. From 1990s to Early 2000s: Marked slowdown in public spending – 

1. Education – 3% of GDP. 
2. Public healthcare –  1% of GDP.

2. From 2000s to Early 2009: Marked by re-prioritization of social spending Eg- Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) for education, National Health Mission (NHM), and MGNREGA.
3. 2010 onwards: Shift towards Rights based approach E.g., Right To Education, Right To Food, etc.

Consonance with achieving the objective of inclusive growth:

1. Rapid growth and poverty reduction:  A total of 415 million people moved out of poverty in India within just 15 years from 2005 to 2021. (UN)
2. Financial inclusion: Under PMJDY more than 53.13 crore bank accounts have been opened proving instrumental in Direct Benefit Transfer to the beneficiaries.
3. Education Accessibility: E.g. Gross Enrolment Ratio for girls at the secondary level rose from 77.45% in 2014-15 to 81.32% in 2019-20.
4. Improved Health Indicators: Health expenditure increases at cagr of 15.8%. (1.9% OF GDP IN FY24) – Life expectancy increased from 58 years in 1991 to 70 years in 2022.

However, Challenges remain in realizing the full extent:

1. High Levels of Poverty – NITI Aayog’s 2021 report estimated that around 25% of the population still lives in multidimensional poverty
2. Employment Generation and Jobless Growth – According to PLFS 2019-20, India’s unemployment rate was 4.8% and youth unemployment (15-29 years) was 22.9%.
3. Underinvestment in Social Infrastructure: According to a report by Dasra, social sector spending was ₹23 trillion ($280 billion) in FY23. It is less than NITI Aayog recommendation of 13% of GDP.
4. Regional Disparities in Development: As per ‘Relative Economic Performance of Indian States: 1960-61 to 2023-24’ by Economic Advisory Council to the Prime Minister (EAC-PM), 5 Southern states have emerged as major contributors to India’s GDP, accounting for 30% by March 2024. On the other hand, Uttar Pradesh contributes only 9.5% of GDP and Bihar just 4.3%. 
5. Social Exclusion and Inequality Based on Caste, Gender etc: According to NITI Aayog’s 2021 Multidimensional Poverty Index, SCs and STs suffer more from multidimensional poverty and Female labor force participation in India is only 23.3% (PLFS 2019-20)

World Economic Forum has suggested 3 practical ways for countries to boost inclusive growth:

1. Investment in their citizens’ capabilities. e.g. Bolsa Familia – Brazil, provides financial aid to brazilian families ensuring children education, vaccination etc.
2. Labour Law Reforms – ensuring social security cover
3. Investment in labor intensive economic sectors including sustainable water, energy, digital, and transport infrastructure, rural economy, education and training.

Implementing Social Security Code 2020 can help achieve goal of instituting a credible social protection framework, consistent with India’s level of development.

As Prime Minister Narendra Modi said “India and the Maldives are not just neighbors; we are natural partners. Our destinies are intertwined, and we share the same vision of peace and prosperity.”  

Geopolitical and Geostrategic Importance of Maldives for India: Focus on Trade and Energy Flows

1. Strategic Location: Maldives’ position on key global maritime trade routes enhances India’s maritime domain awareness and security.
2. Energy Security: Located along key maritime routes between the Gulf of Aden and the Strait of Malacca, the Maldives serves as a critical “toll gate” for nearly half of India’s trade and 80% of its energy imports.
3. Regional Stability: Strong ties with the Maldives support India’s ‘Neighborhood First’ policy, ensuring political stability and minimizing external influences like China.
4. Countering China: India seeks to prevent the Maldives from falling into China’s Belt and Road Initiative debt trap, preserving regional dominance.
5. Trade Hub Potential: The Maldives can serve as a logistics and shipping hub, complementing India’s trade routes and boosting regional economic integration.
6. Maritime Surveillance: Geographic proximity aids India in enhancing surveillance and accessing deep-sea resources through joint projects, strengthening maritime security.
7. Defence Cooperation: A Defence Action Plan was signed in 2016 to strengthen this partnership. India provides nearly 70% of Maldives’ defence training, both on the islands and in India’s military academies.

Challenges

1. Growing Chinese Influence: Eg- China signed 20 “key” agreements, including on tourism cooperation, disaster risk reduction and the blue economy during visit of Xi Jinping.
2. Diplomatic Turmoil – undiplomatic words used by ministers in Maldives, President Muizzu asking India to withdraw military personnel and choosing China for one of his first overseas visits
3. Domestic politics – The ‘India Out’ campaign against the presence of the Indian military on Maldivian soil.
4. India’s security interests hinge on the Maldives’ political stability; internal turmoil could disrupt cooperation and threaten maritime security objectives.
5. Non-traditional threats: Piracy, terrorism, and drug trafficking require ongoing collaboration and intelligence sharing between India and the Maldives.
6. Extremism: The Maldives’ susceptibility to extremism and radicalization demands joint efforts to counter these security challenges.

Way forward

1. Promote Non-Reciprocal Development Assistance to counter  ‘Big Brother Perception: Building on the principles of the Munroe Doctrine, India should focus on providing nonreciprocal, consultative, and cooperative development assistance to the Maldives. ‘
2. Enhance Maritime Security Collaboration including joint naval exercises, surveillance operations, and information sharing. 
3. Engage in Cultural and People-to-People Exchanges: Programs that promote tourism, student exchanges, and cultural initiatives will help build mutual understanding and strengthen bilateral relations.
4. Address Domestic Political Dynamics: India should be sensitive to the internal political landscape of the Maldives, engaging with all political factions and civil society groups to ensure broad-based support for its initiatives. 

Sustained Diplomacy and strengthening People to People connect is essential to build trust and align  ‘Neighbourhood First’ policy with the Maldive’s ‘India First’ policy.

Terrorism is the unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives. Counter-Terrorism Committee (CTC) was established under UNSC resolution 1373 to enhance the capacity of UN member states to prevent and combat terrorism.

Terrorism A Significant Threat To Global Peace And Security

1. Impact on Global and Local Economies: Eg.  2008 Mumbai attacks resulted in a decline in foreign investments and tourism, costing the Indian economy over $2 billion.
2. Political Instability: The rise of ISIS in Syria and Iraq led to the displacement of over 10 million people and destabilized the Middle East.
3. Social Cohesion Challenges: Eg. 2019 Christchurch attacks in New Zealand highlighted how extremism disrupts harmony by fueling religious and ethnic tensions.
4. Radicalization: Eg. ISIS, through social media, recruited over 30,000 foreign fighters from more than 100 countries.
5. Human Rights Violations: Eg. Boko Haram in Nigeria has killed over 37,500 people since 2009, with mass abductions and attacks targeting civilians, violating fundamental human rights.

Effectiveness of the UN Security Council’s Counter-Terrorism Committee (CTC) and Associated Bodies:

1. Helps in Development of Legal Frameworks: The CTC assists in implementing Resolution 1373, which mandates states to criminalize terrorism financing and secure borders. Countries have adapted their laws, including freezing assets linked to terrorism.
2. Promotes International Collaboration: The CTC fosters cooperation between nations to combat terrorism, ensuring shared intelligence and joint operations, especially in high-risk regions like Southeast Asia and the Sahel.
3. Assists Nations via Capacity Building: Training programs, such as in the Sahel region, help local forces combat terrorist threats through specialized skills and counter-terrorism techniques.
4. Enforces Sanction Measures: CTC oversees the implementation of sanctions like travel bans and arms embargoes, ensuring compliance with UN Security Council mandates against terrorist groups like Al-Qaeda.
5. Ensures Monitoring and Compliance: The CTC monitors national compliance through regular state reports, ensuring nations align with international anti-terrorism laws and obligations. Eg. recent follow up visit by CTC in Tanzania to check compliance on counterterrorism resolution.
6. Targets Terrorist Financial Networks: The CTC collaborates with organizations like the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) to combat money laundering and dismantle financial networks that support terrorism.

Challenges Faced by UNSC CTC in Counter-Terrorism:

1. Political Interests and Sovereignty Issues: Disagreements among member states, such as vetoes by Russia and China regarding resolutions on Syria, hinder unified responses..
2. Disparities and Resource Limitations: E Eg. Global Terrorism Index 2022 indicated that terrorism caused $8.6 trillion in economic losses globally, disproportionately affecting less developed nations.
3. Balancing Security with Individual Rights: Surveillance measures, like those under the UAPA,AFSPA in India, USA’s PATRIOT Act, often infringe on civil liberties. A 2021 Pew Research survey found that 56% of Americans are concerned about government overreach in surveillance.
4. Rapid Technological Changes: The use of encrypted communication, as seen in the 2015 Paris attacks, allows terrorists to coordinate while evading detection. 
5. Implementation Gaps: A 2023 review by the committee highlighted that 80 countries reported insufficient resources to enforce effective strategies.

To effectively combat terrorism globally, a multi-pronged approach is essential, focusing on socio-economic development, responsive governance, and a unified Trident Strategy combining strong political will, proactive measures, and strategic communication to counter terrorist influence.

The World Bank defines e-governance as the use by government agencies of information technologies (such as Wide Area Networks, the Internet, and mobile computing) that can transform relations with citizens, businesses, and other arms of government.”

Application of digital technology in service delivery process

e-Governance being multifarious interactions for ensuring transparency and accountability

1. Enhancing Public Access: E-governance platforms facilitate easy access to information, promoting transparency in government processes such as budgeting and tendering. 
2. Preventing Corruption: Digital records and traceable transactions significantly reduce opportunities for corruption by minimizing human interaction. 
3. Citizen Feedback Mechanisms: Interactive features, such as CPGRAMS, empower citizens to file complaints and track resolutions.
4. Auditable Transactions: Eg. Performance dashboards, such as the Swachh Bharat Mission dashboard, provide real-time data on initiatives like toilet construction, ensuring accountability through traceability.
5. Standardized Processes: E-governance standardizes workflows across departments, enhancing fairness in implementing government schemes. Eg. Social audit tools, like the Social Audit Network of India (SANI).

Interactive service model of e-governance

The Interactive-Service Model is the pinnacle of e-governance, where two-way communication between the government and citizens is not just possible but encouraged. 

Role of the Interactive Service Model of e-governance:

1. Enhanced Citizen Engagement:  Platforms like MyGov and town hall forums, allowing them to provide feedback and suggestions 
2. Improved Service Delivery:  Digital India Portal ensures streamlined and accessible services such as passport renewals and tax filings
3. Accountability through Feedback Mechanisms: Platforms like CPGRAMS, enable citizens to lodge complaints and track their resolution.
4. Customization of Services: As seen in the UMANG app, which tailors services based on user interactions and preferences.
5. Digital Democracy: Through participatory platforms like online consultations, surveys, and digital town halls, the interactive service model fosters a more inclusive and transparent form of governance.

Issues with the Interactive Service Model of E-Governance

1. Digital Divide: Over 60% of rural Indians lack internet access, hindering their ability to benefit from e-governance services, thereby widening the gap between urban and rural populations.
2. Data Privacy Concerns: The Aadhaar system, with over 1.3 billion enrolled, has faced criticism for potential misuse of personal data, raising significant privacy issues and public distrust.
3. Dependency on Technology: Reliance on technology can lead to service disruptions; for instance, during the 2020 lockdown, many citizens faced difficulties accessing essential services due to tech failures.
4. Cybersecurity Risks: In 2020, cyberattacks on government systems increased by 37%, threatening sensitive citizen data and critical operations, highlighting vulnerabilities in e-governance frameworks.
5. Bureaucratic Resistance: A 2021 survey by NITI Aayog found that 40% of government officials reported inadequate digital literacy, obstructing the implementation of e-governance initiatives and leading to inefficiencies.
6. Resource Intensive: Many state governments struggle with budget constraints; eg. only 20% of Indian states have allocated sufficient funds for developing robust e-governance infrastructure.
7. Equity and Inclusion: E-governance may exacerbate inequalities; as only 25% of women in rural areas use online services, limiting their access to vital resources and information.

E-governance is inclusive of e-Democracy, e-Government and e-Business. Government Process Re-engineering using IT is critical for realisation of Viksit Bharat and New india.

Healthcare is a fundamental right crucial for individual dignity and welfare. Article 47 of the Indian Constitution highlights the State’s responsibility to ensure public health, affirming the commitment to provide equitable access to healthcare for all citizens.

Adverse impact of marketisation of healthcare system 

1. Inequity in access: creates a dual healthcare system where wealthy individuals can access, afford and avail healthcare, while the poor rely on underfunded public healthcare.
2. Rural-urban divide as only 30% healthcare infrastructure serves 70% rural population, leaving rural areas underserved.
3. Rising cost and affordability: Eg. 47.1% of total healthcare spending in India is out-of-pocket expenditure (National Health Accounts 2019-2020).
4. Commodification of Healthcare: Eg. doctors prescribing unnecessary tests and medicines just to increase profit.
5. Limited Focus on Preventive Care: Market-driven systems prioritize curative care over preventive measures, leading to under-investment in public health.

Role of state in containing marketisation of healthcare 

1. Regulation of Healthcare Costs: The state can cap treatment prices, regulate drug prices (e.g., India’s National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority), and ensure that essential medicines remain affordable.
2. Strengthening Public Healthcare: The government can expand and improve public health infrastructure to provide low-cost or free services, reducing dependency on private healthcare providers.
3. Universal Healthcare Schemes: Programs like Ayushman Bharat in India help reduce out-of-pocket expenses for poor citizens by providing free access to essential health services.
4. Health Insurance Regulation: The state can ensure that private health insurance schemes are affordable, transparent, and provide adequate coverage without discrimination or exploitation.
5. Public Health Campaigns: The state plays a key role in promoting preventive healthcare, vaccination drives, and awareness programs to reduce the burden of disease and reliance on expensive treatments.
6. Subsidizing Essential Health Services
   1. The government should provide subsidies for essential drugs and healthcare services to make them more affordable for the general public. Eg. Jan Aushadhi Stores
   2. Provide free preventive healthcare services such as immunizations, maternal and child care, and routine health checkups to reduce out-of-pocket expenditure.

Measures to Enhance Public Healthcare at the Grassroots Level

1. Decentralization of Healthcare Governance: Empower local governing bodies like Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) and urban local bodies to take charge of healthcare delivery at the local level. This would ensure more responsive and need-based healthcare.
2. Public-Private Partnerships (PPP): NITI Aayog in its report ‘Reimagining Healthcare In India Through Blended Finance’ Encouraged  partnerships between the government and private healthcare providers for the supply of healthcare equipment, medicines, and mobile health units in rural areas.
3. Health Education and Community Participation: Launch health literacy programs and engage local communities in healthcare planning by forming village health committees to monitor programs. Eg. ASHA and Anganwadi workers can be leveraged.
4. Increased Budget Allocation for Public Health to improve infrastructure, recruit more healthcare workers, and ensure the continuous supply of medicines. Allocate funds specifically for underserved areas, ensuring equitable distribution of healthcare resources across the country.
5. Focus on Preventive Healthcare:  Prioritize preventive healthcare measures, such as improving sanitation, clean drinking water access, and widespread vaccination campaigns.
6. Implement nutrition programs targeting maternal health and child development to reduce the incidence of malnutrition and related diseases.
7. Technological Integration: Use telemedicine, mobile health apps, and electronic health records to enhance remote care access and continuity. Eg: Practo, eSanjeevani.

As the saying goes, “Health is wealth, not wealth in health,” emphasizing the importance of accessible health care. By focusing on public investment and community health initiatives, the state can ensure health remains a fundamental right, not a commodity.

As per 2nd ARC, Citizen Charter is a public statement that defines the entitlements of citizens to a specific service, the standards of the service, the conditions to be met by users, and the remedies available to the latter in case of non-compliance of standards. Adopted in 1997 in India, citizen charter still to realize it’s full potential.

Importance Of Citizens Charter In Ensuring Citizen Centric Administration 

Factors Hindering Realization Of Full Potential Of Citizens Charter 

1. One size fits all: Tendency to have a uniform CC for all offices under the parent organization. CC has still not been adopted by all Ministries/Departments. This overlooks local issues.
2. Silo operations: Devoid of participative mechanisms in a majority of cases, not formulated through a consultative process with cutting edge staff who will finally implement it.
3. Lack of Legal Enforcement: Citizen Charters aren’t legally binding, which limits accountability.
4. Non-Dynamic: Charters are rarely updated making it a one-time exercise, frozen in time.
5. Poor design and content: lack of meaningful and succinct CC, absence of critical information that end-users need to hold agencies accountable.
6. Lack of public awareness: only a small percentage of end-users are aware of the commitments made in the CC since effective efforts of communicating and educating the public about the standards of delivery promise have not been undertaken.
7. Stakeholders not consulted: End-users, Civil society organizations and NGOs are not consulted when CCs are drafted. Since a CC’s primary purpose is to make public service delivery more citizen-centric, consultation with stakeholders is a must.
8. Measurable standards of delivery are rarely defined: making it difficult to assess whether the desired level of service has been achieved or not.
9. Poor adherence: little interest shown by the organizations in adhering to their CC. since there is no citizen friendly mechanism to compensate the citizen if the organization defaults.

Measures required (2nd ARC recommendations)

1. Customized Charters: Citizens’ Charters should be tailored to specific organizations preferably in local languages rather than adopting a one-size-fits-all approach, ensuring relevance to local contexts and needs.
2. Stakeholder Consultation: The formulation of charters must involve extensive consultations with all stakeholders, including citizens, NGOs and other civil society, to ensure that the charters reflect genuine needs and expectations.
3. Clear Commitments should be specified regarding service delivery standards and outline remedies or compensations for failures in service provision, enhancing accountability.
4. Regular Evaluation by independent agencies, to assess their effectiveness and ensure they remain relevant and impactful.
5. Adoption of the Sevottam Model: The Sevottam model was suggested by the 2nd ARC in its 12th report on “Citizen Centric Administration”.  This model combines the principles of ‘service’ and ‘uttam’ (excellence) and outlines a systematic approach:
   1. Defining services and identifying clients.
   2. Setting standards and norms for each service.
   3. Developing capabilities to meet these standards.
   4. Performing services to achieve the standards.
   5. Monitoring and evaluating performance continuously.
   6. Implementing continuous improvements based on evaluations.

The Citizens’ Charter is a commitment to service quality, transparency, and accountability, promoting responsive governance. Reviving this program in government departments is essential for ensuring accountability to both citizens and the organizations themselves.

Secularism is a principle that advocates the separation of religion from politics and governance. It seeks to
establish a society where religious institutions and state institutions are independent of each other.

India As A Secular State

1. Constitutional Guarantee of Secularism:
   a. Equality before Law: All citizens, irrespective of their religion, are treated equally before the law (Article
   14).
   b. Articles 25-28 guarantee freedom of religion, allowing individuals to practice, profess, and propagate
   their faith freely.
   c. Religious and linguistic minorities have the right to preserve their culture and establish educational
   institutions (Article 30).
2. Pluralistic Society with Equal Religious Representation: India’s inclusive secularism celebrates diverse religious festivals, exemplifying Rajeev Bhargava’s idea of “equal respect for all religions,” unlike the Western
   model of strict separation.
3. Judicial Interventions Upholding Secularism – SC in S.R. Bommai Judgment has held Secularism as a Basic
   Feature of the Constitution
4. Positive Model of Secularism
   a. India’s secularism permits personal laws for different religious communities, enabling autonomy in
   marriage, divorce, and inheritance. Eg- Muslim Personal Law.
   b. State Support for Religious and Cultural Practices: Eg. subsidies for the Hajj pilgrimage for Muslims,
   financial support for Hindu pilgrimages, and Sikh langars.

Dilution Of Secularism In India

1. Communal Violence and Polarisation: NCRB Report (2021) recorded more than 5,000 cases of communal
   riots between 2017 and 2021. Eg. The Nuh violence in Haryana in 2023.
2. Use of hate speech and narrative of “us vs them” during election campaigns has contributed to religious
   polarization, with leaders making divisive statements to appeal to specific communities.
3. Mob Lynching and Vigilantism: Incidents of mob lynching, especially targeting minority communities under
   the guise of cow protection or other religious sentiments, have risen. Eg. Recently a man beaten in train
   for carrying beef, sadhu lynching in palghar.
4. Social exclusion based on religious identity – Eg. A 2021 Pew Research Center report found 64% of Indians identify as “Hindus first” rather than “Indians first,” illustrating the rise of religious nationalism. Eg- boycott on Muslim vendors in temple fairs in Karnataka (2022).
5. Challenges in Implementing Secular Principles: A 2019 Lokniti-CSDS survey found significant opposition to the Uniform Civil Code: 55% of Muslims, 54% of Christians, and 40% of Hindus, highlighting the challenge of achieving consensus on secular reforms.

Comparison Of Secular Provisions Between Indian And Us Constitution

Similarities

1. Constitutional Enshrinement: U.S. Constitution’s First Amendment prohibits Congress from establishing
   a religion, while India’s 42nd Amendment explicitly includes “secular” in Preamble, affirming the state’s
   neutrality towards all religions.
2. Freedom of Religion: U.S. First Amendment guarantees free exercise of religion, paralleling Articles 25-28
   of the Indian Constitution, which protect individuals’ rights to profess, practice, and propagate their faith
   without state interference.
3. Judiciary’s Role: Landmark cases like Engel v. Vitale (1962) in U.S. and S. R Bommai case in India ensured
   judicial protection of these principles.

Secularism and Harmony is not “political fashion” but it is “perfect passion” for India and Indians. Thus, Upholding secular values, fostering interfaith dialogue, and promoting inclusive policies are crucial for maintaining a pluralistic society and strengthening the fabric of Indian democracy.

The Supreme Court has defined Public Interest Litigation (PIL) as “a legal action initiated in a court of law for the enforcement of public interest or general interest in which the public or a class of the community have pecuniary interest or some interest by which their legal rights or liabilities are affected.” As per SC observer Data, on an average, the Court receives 26,379 PILs every year.

Reasons for growth of PIL in India 

1. Relaxation of Locus Standi in Hussainara Khatoon v. State of Bihar (1979), which focused on the inhuman conditions of under-trial prisoners, laid the foundation for broader access to justice.
2. Judicial Activism: Judges like P.N. Bhagwati and V.R. Krishna Iyer promoted PILs as a vehicle for ensuring fundamental rights as enshrined under Article 32 and way to address grievances related to social and economic injustice. 
3. Access to Justice: PILs made it easier for marginalized and disadvantaged sections of society to approach the courts.
4. Societal Concerns: Issues such as environmental degradation, human rights violations, and corruption became areas where citizens could seek judicial intervention, pushing PIL cases to the forefront. Eg- MC Mehta Case
5. Media Attention: Media coverage of PIL cases has increased public awareness, making the judiciary a platform for addressing wide-ranging societal problems.
6. Executive and Legislative Inaction: PILs grew due to perceived inefficiencies or failures of the executive and legislative branches in addressing important social and political issues. Eg- PIL on Paper Leak

Supreme Court as the World’s Most Powerful Judiciary 

Arguments in Favor:

1.  Upendra Baxi, opines PIL has transformed Indian judiciary into an “institution of governance,” taking on functions traditionally vested in the executive and legislative branches.
2. Judicial Activism: Through Public Interest Litigations (PILs), the Indian Supreme Court has actively addressed key social and political issues, such as the right to privacy (Puttaswamy judgment) and environmental protections. 
3. Expansive Interpretation of Rights: It has broadened the interpretation of fundamental rights under Article 21, impacting areas like health, education, and environmental rights.
4. Judicial Review: The Court exercises powerful judicial review, overturning executive and legislative decisions. Eg- NJAC Judgment
5. Intervention in Policy Matters: The Court has played a direct role in governance by issuing landmark judgments on policy issues like environmental regulations (Taj Mahal pollution case) and human rights (Vishakha guidelines for sexual harassment).
6. Suo Motu Powers: The Supreme Court can take cognizance of cases on its own, further extending its reach and influence.

Argument Against

1. Overreach: The Court’s decision to interfere in policy issues like setting the height of the Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel statue drew criticism for stepping into areas best left to the executive.
2. Inefficiency and Delays: As of 2023, the Indian judiciary had a backlog of over 4.7 crore cases, including in the Supreme Court, leading to delays in delivering justice.
3. Inconsistent Decision-Making: In cases like Sabarimala Temple Entry (2018), where religious rights were pitted against gender equality, the Court’s rulings led to divided public opinion and later contradictions, illustrating inconsistency.
4. Criticism of Policy Interference: The Supreme Court’s intervention in BCCI reforms (Lodha Committee case) raised concerns that it was overstepping into the domain of sports administration, traditionally a non-judicial area.
5. Lack of implementation of court verdicts hinder the successful implementation of PIL.

Way Forward

1. Striking a balance between legitimate cases and frivolous cases: Scrutiny panel or special PIL cells can be set up for scrutiny at first stage.
2. Provision of strict punishment for frivolous PILs.
3. Court should be fully satisfied that substantial public interest is involved before entertaining the petition.

Justice P.N. Bhagwati thus cautioned that PIL must not degenerate into “publicity or private interest litigation”. By striking balance between ensuring access to justice and preventing misuse, PIL can become crucial tool for upholding the rule of law and protecting the rights of marginalized and vulnerable citizens..