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  • Researchers develop Red Ivy Plant-Based Wound-Healing Pad

    Why in the News?

    Researchers at JNTBGRI has developed a multifunctional wound-healing pad using nanomaterials, inspired by the red ivy plant (Strobilanthes alternata), traditionally used in folk medicine.

    About the Red Ivy Plant:

    • Overview: Strobilanthes alternata, locally called murikooti pacha, belonging to the Acanthaceae family.
    • Habitat: Found abundantly in tropical regions, including India.
    • Traditional Use: Used in folk medicine for treating cuts and wounds.
    • Scientific Discovery: JNTBGRI, Palode isolated acteoside, a natural bioactive compound, for the first time in this plant.
    • Therapeutic Use: Acteoside, known elsewhere for medicinal activity, showed high wound-healing efficacy at 0.2% concentration in red ivy.

    Features of the Wound-Healing Pad:

    • Design: India’s first multifunctional herbal wound dressing pad, combining traditional knowledge with nanotechnology.
    • Components: Electro-spun nanofiber layer (biodegradable, porous, antimicrobial barrier); Acteoside + neomycin sulfate blend (healing and infection control); Sodium alginate sponge (absorbs exudates); Activated carbon layer (controls odour).
    • Significance: Affordable, scalable, and a model of herbal medicine integrated with modern nanotech innovation.
    [UPSC 2021] Which one of the following is used in preparing a natural mosquito repellent?

    Options:

    (a) Congress grass (b) Elephant grass (c) Lemongrass* (d) Nut grass

     

  • Expedition ‘Samudra Pradakshina’

    Why in the News?

    Defence Minister flagged off Samudra Pradakshina, the world’s first tri-service all-women circumnavigation sailing mission, from the Gateway of India, Mumbai.

    About Expedition ‘Samudra Pradakshina’:

    • Overview: First-ever all-women tri-service circumnavigation sailing expedition in the world.
    • Crew: Ten women officers from the Army, Navy, and Air Force, led by Lt. Col. Anuja Varudkar.
    • Vessel: IASV Triveni, a 50-foot yacht built indigenously in Puducherry.
    • Duration & Route: Nine months, covering 26,000 nautical miles, crossing the Equator twice, and rounding Capes Leeuwin, Horn, and Good Hope.
    • Port Calls: Fremantle (Australia), Lyttelton (New Zealand), Buenos Aires (Argentina), Cape Town (South Africa).
    • Mission Objectives: Showcase Nari Shakti, promote joint military cooperation, advance Atmanirbhar Bharat, strengthen maritime diplomacy, and conduct ocean research with the National Institute of Oceanography.

    Historic Precursors:

    • Sir Robin Knox-Johnston (UK):  First solo non-stop circumnavigation (1969).
    • Captain Dilip Donde (2009–10): First Indian solo circumnavigation. Commander Abhilash Tomy (2012–13) — first Indian solo non-stop circumnavigation.
    • Women-led Expeditions: Navika Sagar Parikrama (2017–18)– first all-women Indian Navy circumnavigation on INSV Tarini. Navika Sagar Parikrama-II (2024–25) – second successful all-women naval circumnavigation on INSV Tarini.
    [UPSC 2025] Operations undertaken by the Army towards upliftment of the local population in remote areas to include addressing of their basic needs is called:

    Options:

    (a) Operation Sankalp (b) Operation Maitri (c) Operation Sadbhavana* (d) Operation Madad

     

  • In news: Pugad Island

    Why in the News?

    The Philippine island of Pugad in Manila Bay is facing an existential threat as rising sea levels and rapid land subsidence combine to submerge homes and livelihoods.

    About Pugad Island:

    • Overview: Small 7-hectare island in Manila Bay, situated at the mouth of the Angat–Pampanga River Delta, under Hagonoy municipality, Bulacan province, Philippines.
    • Population: Home to about 1,636–2,056 residents, living in a single clustered village of roughly 384 houses.
    • Livelihoods: Community depends on fishing and aquaculture, with families cultivating clams, mussels, and whiting fish in converted fishponds.
    • Living Conditions: Houses built mainly from bamboo and old metal sheets, with poor sanitation, minimal healthcare facilities, and only elementary-level schooling.
    • Flooding Challenge: Regularly hit by high-tide and monsoon floods, made worse by land subsidence (11 cm/year) and sea-level rise (three times global average).
    • Environmental Hazards: Loss of mangroves, urban encroachment, and exposure to typhoons increase risks of disaster and displacement.
    [UPSC 2018] Which of the following has/have shrunk immensely/dried up in the recent past due to human activities?

    1.Aral Sea 2.Black Sea 3.Lake Baikal

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 2 only (d) 1 and 3*

     

  • Swami Vivekananda and Vedanta Philosophy

    Why in the News?

    On the 132nd anniversary of his 1893 Chicago address, Swami Vivekananda was remembered for introducing Indian spirituality and Vedanta to the world with a message of tolerance and unity.

    About Swami Vivekananda:

    • Early life: Born Narendranath Datta in 1863, Kolkata; Chief disciple of Sri Ramakrishna.
    • Role: Monk, reformer, and founder of the Ramakrishna Mission (1897).
    • Chicago Speech: Rose to global fame with his 1893 Parliament of Religions address in Chicago, calling for religious tolerance and universal brotherhood.
    • Teachings: Advocated social service, education, and spiritual sovereignty as means of national regeneration.
    • Legacy: Inspired the rise of Vedanta Societies worldwide, spread yoga and meditation in the West, and became a key figure in the Indian renaissance and freedom movement.

    What is Vedanta Philosophy?

    • Roots: Derived from the Upanishads, especially Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism).
    • Oneness of Existence: The universe is one absolute Brahman; all souls are divine.
    • Religious Pluralism: All religions are valid paths to the same truth; promotes harmony, not division.
    • Self-Realization: The aim of life is to realize and manifest one’s innate divinity.
    • Karma Yoga: Selfless service is a spiritual practice — “Jiva is Shiva” (service to man is service to God).
    • Practical Vedanta: Application of spiritual wisdom to daily life and social reform, bridging tradition and modernity.

    Back2Basics: Indian Classical Philosophy

    There are 6 classical schools of Indian philosophy in the orthodox (Astika) tradition, which accept the authority of the Vedas:

    1. Nyaya: School of logic and reasoning
    2. Vaisesika:  Atomism and categories of reality
    3. Sankhya: Dualism of consciousness (purusha) and matter (prakriti)
    4. Yoga: Practical discipline based on Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras
    5. Mimamsa (Purva Mimamsa): Ritual action and dharma
    6. Vedanta (Uttara Mimamsa): Philosophy of the Upanishads

    Apart from these, there are also heterodox (Nastika) schools, which do not accept Vedic authority, such as Buddhism, Jainism, and Charvaka (materialism).

     

  • A joint and new journey along the SCO pathway

    Introduction

    The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), now the largest regional grouping after 24 years of evolution, witnessed its biggest summit in Tianjin with 23 countries and 10 international organisations participating. The presence of Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Chinese President Xi Jinping signalled a possible recalibration of bilateral ties amid a tense global order. This summit was not only about regional security but also about shaping global governance, fostering sustainable development, and exploring new pathways of cooperation.

    Why in the News

    The Tianjin SCO Summit is in the news because it marked the largest gathering in SCO’s history and produced high-yielding outcomes, such as the creation of security centres, a development bank, and long-term strategies in energy, green industry, and digital economy. Importantly, India and China engaged in dialogue during the diamond jubilee year of China-India diplomatic ties, projecting partnership rather than rivalry. This reflects a striking shift from the border tensions that have dominated headlines in recent years, positioning the summit as a turning point in regional cooperation and global governance.

    High-Yield Outcomes of the Tianjin Summit

    1. Tianjin Declaration: Announced creation of four security centres, including an Anti-drug Center and a Universal Countering Security Challenges Center.
    2. SCO Development Bank: Decision to set up a regional bank to finance cooperative projects.
    3. Fair Stance on Trade: SCO states collectively defended multilateral trading systems and WWII legacy.
    4. 10-Year Strategy: Leaders adopted a development strategy for the next decade.
    5. China’s Initiatives: Xi announced three platforms for energy, green industry, and digital economy; and three centres for innovation, higher education, and vocational training.

    How the Summit Shaped Global Governance

    1. Global Governance Initiative: Xi proposed principles such as sovereign equality, international rule of law, and multilateralism.
    2. People-Centered Approach: Emphasis on real actions for peace and justice.
    3. Leadership Platform: SCO positioned as a space to counter the “governance deficit” in world politics.

    India’s Role in the SCO

    1. Active Member since 2017: India has advanced SCO’s development agenda.
    2. Support for Presidency: India extended full support to China’s SCO presidency.
    3. Areas of Cooperation: Security, energy, green industry, and digital economy identified as convergence points.

    75 Years of India-China Ties

    1. Anniversary Diplomacy: Modi and Xi stressed partnership over rivalry.
    2. Dragon and Elephant Metaphor: Xi urged for “dragon and elephant to dance together.”
    3. Consensus vs Disagreement: Leaders agreed that consensus outweighs differences.

    Road Ahead for Bilateral Cooperation

    1. Strategic Mutual Trust: Resume dialogue mechanisms, embrace peaceful coexistence, and mutual respect.
    2. Expanding Exchanges: Focus on trade, investment, technology, culture, and people-to-people bonds.
    3. Good-Neighbourliness: Reinforce Panchsheel principles, keep border differences from overshadowing wider relations.
    4. Global South Leadership: India and China to lead BRICS presidencies, resist hegemony, and promote fairness in world order.

    Conclusion

    The Tianjin Summit reflects a recalibration of SCO’s role as a platform for regional stability and global governance. For India, it marks a moment of balancing rivalry with cooperation in ties with China. If trust and exchanges are consolidated, India-China relations can shape the future of Asia and the Global South. The challenge lies in ensuring border disputes do not overshadow wider opportunities.

    Value Addition

    Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) 

    • Establishment: Permanent intergovernmental organisation founded on 15 June 2001 in Shanghai by China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan. Predecessor: Shanghai Five (1996).
    • Charter: Adopted in 2002 (St. Petersburg), in force since 2003, laying down goals, principles, and structure.
    • Goals:
      • Strengthen trust, friendship, good-neighbourliness.
      • Promote cooperation in politics, economy, science, culture, education, energy, environment, etc.
      • Maintain peace, security, stability in the region.
      • Promote a fair, democratic international order.
    • Principles (Shanghai Spirit): Mutual trust, benefit, equality, consultation, respect for civilizational diversity, common development; externally—non-alignment, openness, non-targeting others.
    • Structure:
      • Council of Heads of State (CHS) – supreme body (annual).
      • Council of Heads of Government (CHG) – economic strategy, budget (annual).
      • Numerous sectoral mechanisms.
    • Permanent Bodies: Secretariat (Beijing) & Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS, Tashkent).
    • Membership:
      • 10 Members – India, China, Russia, Pakistan, Iran, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan.
      • 2 Observers – Afghanistan, Mongolia.
      • 14 Dialogue Partners – incl. Nepal, Sri Lanka, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Egypt, Qatar, Maldives, etc.

    Key Takeaways from SCO Summit 2025

    • 24 Documents Approved – including Tianjin Declaration and SCO Development Strategy till 2035.
    • Security Cooperation – agreement on SCO Anti-Drug Center and Universal Center for Countering Challenges & Threats.
    • Counter-Terrorism – joint declaration condemned Pahalgam (India), Jaffer Express & Khuzdar (Pakistan) terrorist attacks – significant as Pahalgam was earlier omitted.
    • Membership Expansion – Lao PDR granted Dialogue Partner status; CIS given Observer status.
    • Cultural Capital – Cholpon-Ata (Kyrgyzstan) designated SCO Tourist & Cultural Capital (2025–26).
    • Civilisation Dialogue Forum – proposed by PM Modi to strengthen people-to-people ties & civilizational exchange.
    • Global Governance Initiative – proposed by Xi Jinping for multilateralism, just & equitable order, Global South leadership.
    • SCO Chairmanship – passed to Kyrgyz Republic (2025–26) with theme: “25 years of SCO: together for a stable world, development, prosperity.”

    What SCO Means for India’s Global and Regional Interests

    1. Strategic Pillars – PM Modi outlined India’s SCO vision as S–Security, C–Connectivity, O–Opportunity.
    2. Central Asia Engagement – SCO provides a rare forum to deepen ties with resource-rich Central Asia and expand India’s role as a pan-Asian player beyond the South Asian paradigm.
    3. Counter-Terrorism – Access to the Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS) helps India with intelligence-sharing against the “three evils” (terrorism, separatism, extremism), beyond Pakistan-centric frameworks.
    4. India–Russia Cooperation – SCO strengthens Delhi’s strategic proximity with Moscow, which backed India’s full membership in 2016.
    5. Balancing China – India’s presence acts as a countervailing force to Chinese dominance in Eurasia, supported by Russia.
    6. BRI Opposition – India continues to reject the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) as it passes through Pakistan-occupied territory, asserting sovereignty concerns.
    7. Diplomatic Battlefield – While enabling multilateral engagement, SCO also reflects great-power rivalries, making it both an opportunity and a challenge for India.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2023] ‘Virus of Conflict is affecting the functioning of the SCO.’ In the light of the above statement, point out the role of India in mitigating the problems.

    Linkage: The SCO faces internal strains due to rivalries among major members, including China-Pakistan ties and regional security tensions. India has sought to mitigate these by emphasizing its three-pillared approach of Security, Connectivity, and Opportunity, pushing for counter-terrorism cooperation through RATS, and resisting divisive projects like BRI while promoting dialogue, civilizational exchange, and balanced economic engagement. Thus, India positions itself as a stabilizing force to preserve SCO’s collective agenda despite conflicts.

  • [pib] Gyan Bharatam Mission

    Why in the News?

    The Ministry of Culture has launched the ‘Gyan Bharatam’, a landmark national initiative dedicated to preserving, digitising, and disseminating India’s manuscript heritage.

    About Gyan Bharatam Mission:

    • Launch: A national initiative by the Ministry of Culture to preserve, digitise, and disseminate India’s manuscript heritage.
    • Scheme Type: Approved as a Central Sector Scheme (2024–31) with an outlay of ₹482.85 crore.
    • Background: Builds on the National Mission for Manuscripts (2003), which documented 44.07 lakh manuscripts in the Kriti Sampada repository.
    • Vision: Integrates tradition with modern technology (AI, cloud systems, digital archives) to safeguard manuscripts as living knowledge resources.
    • Philosophy: Linked to PM’s Viksit Bharat @2047 vision, positioning India as Vishwa Guru by combining heritage with innovation.

    Key Features:

    • Identification & Documentation: Establishment of Manuscript Resource Centres (MRCs) for systematic registration across India.
    • Conservation & Restoration: Strengthening Manuscript Conservation Centres (MCCs) for preventive and curative preservation using scientific techniques.
    • Digitisation & Repository: Large-scale digitisation with AI-based Handwritten Text Recognition (HTR), microfilming, and creation of a National Digital Repository accessible worldwide.
    • Youth & Public Engagement: Programs like Gyan-Setu AI Innovation Challenge to involve youth, start-ups, and researchers in heritage innovation.
    [UPSC 2008] Recently, the manuscripts of which one of the following have been included in UNESCO’s Memory of the World Register?

    Options: (a) Abhidhamma Pitaka (b) Mahabharata (c) Ramayana (d) Rig Veda*

     

  • [pib] Adi Sanskriti Digital Learning Platform

    Why in the News?

    The Ministry of Tribal Affairs has launched the beta version of “Adi Sanskriti”, a pioneering digital learning platform.

    About Adi Sanskriti:

    • What is it: A digital learning platform launched by the Ministry of Tribal Affairs.
    • Objective: To preserve tribal art forms, create livelihoods, and connect tribal communities with the world; scale into a Tribal Digital University with certifications, research opportunities, and transformative learning pathways.
    • Significance: Envisioned as the world’s first Digital University dedicated to tribal culture and traditional knowledge.
    • Developed by: MoTA collaboration with State Tribal Research Institutes (TRIs) to ensure authentic documentation and grassroots participation.
    • Integration with TRIs: Contributions from TRIs of 14 states including Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, and Uttar Pradesh.

    Key Components of Adi Sanskriti:

    1. Adi Vishwavidyalaya (Digital Tribal Art Academy): Currently offering 45 immersive courses on tribal dance, painting, crafts, music, and folklore.
    2. Adi Sampada (Socio-Cultural Repository): Houses over 5,000 curated documents covering paintings, dance, clothing and textiles, artefacts, and livelihood practices.
    3. Adi Haat (Online Marketplace): Linked with TRIFED, designed to evolve into a dedicated e-marketplace for tribal artisans, ensuring sustainable livelihoods and direct consumer access.
    [UPSC 2016] SWAYAM’, an initiative of the Government of India, aims at:

    Options: (a) promoting the Self Help Groups in rural areas

    (b) providing financial and technical assistance to young start-up entrepreneurs

    (c) promoting the education and health of adolescent girls

    (d) providing affordable and quality education to the citizens for free*

     

  • Himachal Pradesh declared to be ‘Fully Literate’

    Why in the News?

    Himachal Pradesh was recently declared a ‘fully literate’ state, becoming the 5th State/UT after Goa, Ladakh, Mizoram, and Tripura.

    Various Definitions of Literacy / Full Literacy:

    • Ministry of Education (MoE) Definition: Literacy is the ability to read, write, and compute with comprehension, along with digital literacy and financial literacy as critical life skills.
    • Full Literacy (MoE): A State/Union Territory (UT) is considered fully literate at 95% literacy rate.
    • Census of India (2011): Any person aged 7 years or above who can read and write with understanding in any language is considered literate. Ability to read without writing is NOT counted as literacy.
    • ULLAS Programme: Understanding Lifelong Learning for All in Society launched in 2022. Literacy here means acquiring foundational skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic plus functional knowledge like time, currency, and digital use.
    • NILP: New India Literacy Programme (centrally sponsored, aligned with NEP 2020). Defines full literacy as achieving ≥95% literacy rate certified via assessments.

    How is Literacy attained under ULLAS / NILP?

    • Target Group: Adults (15+) who missed formal schooling are identified through door-to-door surveys or other state data.
    • Basic Training: Learners are taught reading, writing, and arithmetic (up to Class 3 level), along with practical skills like using calendars, reading time, handling currency/cheques, and making safe digital transactions.
    • Delivery Mechanism: Training delivered through the ULLAS mobile app or offline by student volunteers and community workers.
    • Assessment: Learners appear for FLNAT (Foundational Literacy and Numeracy Assessment Test), a 150-mark test available in regional languages.
    • Certification: On passing FLNAT, learners are certified by the NIOS (National Institute of Open Schooling) as literate.
    • Outcome: States/UTs are declared ‘fully literate’ when identified non-literates clear FLNAT and the literacy rate crosses the 95% threshold.
    [UPSC 2017] What is the aim of the programme ‘Unnat Bharat Abhiyan’ ?

    Options:

    (a) Achieving 100% literacy by promoting collaboration between voluntary organizations and government’s education system and local communities.

    (b) Connecting institutions of higher education with local communities to address development challenges through appropriate technologies. *

    (c) Strengthening India’s scientific research institutions to make India a scientific and technological Power.

    (d) Developing human capital by allocating special funds for health-care and education of rural and urban poor, and organizing skill development programmes and vocational training for them.

     

  • Power of Siberia 2 Pipeline

    Why in the News?

    Russia has announced a “legally binding” memorandum with China to build the Power of Siberia 2 pipeline, highlighting closer Russia–China ties amid Western sanctions.

    Power of Siberia 2 Pipeline

    What are Power of Siberia Pipelines?

    • Power of Siberia 1: Operational pipeline from eastern Siberia to northern China; commercial exports since Dec 2019.
    • Specifications: Length over 5,100 km (3,968 km in Russia), diameter 1,420 mm, capacity 61 bcm/year (38 bcm contracted to China). Built to withstand –62°C, using 2.25 million tonnes of steel.
    • Gas Source & Route: Supplies from Chayanda field (Yakutia) and later Kovykta field; passes via Amur Gas Processing Plant; two tunnels cross under the Amur River into China, linking to Heihe–Shanghai pipeline.
    • Timeline: Construction began 2014, completed 2019, full 38 bcm deliveries by 2025.
    • Power of Siberia 2: Planned 2,600 km pipeline exporting 50 bcm/year from Yamal & western Siberia fields to China, via Mongolia (Soyuz Vostok segment).
    • Status: Gazprom–CNPC signed a binding memorandum. Pricing, financing, and timelines remain unsettled; deliveries may start by 2030.

    Geopolitical Significance:

    • Political Symbolism: Project showcases Russia–China partnership, snubs Western LNG, and reflects defiance of sanctions.
    • Strategic Showcase: Analysts call it political theatre — Russia grows more dependent on China, while China gains strategic leverage.
    [UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:

    Statement-I: Sumed pipeline is a strategic route for Persian Gulf oil and natural gas shipments to Europe.

    Statement-II: Sumed pipeline connects the Red Sea with the Mediterranean Sea.

    Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?”

    Options: (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II explains Statement-I* (b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct, but Statement-II does not explain Statement-I (c) Statement-I is correct, but Statement-II is incorrect (d) Statement-I is incorrect, but Statement-II is correct

     

  • Swachh Vayu Survekshan, 2025

    Why in the News?

    Indore, already recognized as the cleanest city in India, has topped the list of million-plus population cities in the Swachh Vayu Survekshan 2025.

    Swachh Vayu Survekshan, 2025

    About Swachh Vayu Survekshan (SVS), 2025:

    • Overview: Annual survey by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) under the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP).
    • Objective: Promotes healthy competition among cities and accelerates implementation of air quality measures.
    • Coverage: Includes 130 cities, grouped into 3 categories: million-plus population, 3–10 lakh population, and under 3 lakh population.
    • Parameters: Cities assessed on 8 factors such as road dust mitigation, solid waste management, vehicular emission control, industrial emission control, construction and demolition waste handling, public awareness, and particulate matter (PM10/PM2.5) reduction.
    • Methodology: Uses a multi-tier evaluation focusing on both on-ground actions and measurable outcomes.

    Key Findings of SVS, 2025:

    • Top Performer: Indore ranked 1st among million-plus cities, regaining its position after slipping to 6th in 2024. It had also topped in 2023, while Lucknow topped the inaugural edition in 2022.
    • Other Million-Plus Rankings: Jabalpur 2nd, Agra and Surat 3rd, Navi Mumbai 4th, Kanpur 5th, Bhopal 6th, Allahabad 7th, Chandigarh 8th, Ahmedabad–Pune–Nagpur 10th, Varanasi and Raipur 11th, Lucknow 15th, Hyderabad 22nd, Mumbai 25th, Jaipur 26th, Delhi 32nd, Bengaluru 36th, Kolkata 38th, Chennai 41st.
    • 3–10 Lakh Cities: Amravati 1st, Jhansi and Moradabad joint 2nd, Alwar 3rd.
    • Under-3 Lakh Cities: Dewas 1st, Parwanoo 2nd, Angul 3rd.
    • Air Quality Data: Indore recorded PM10 at 83 μg/m³ in 2024–25, slightly higher than 82 μg/m³ in 2017–18. Cities like Chennai (58 μg/m³), Varanasi (59 μg/m³), Bengaluru (68 μg/m³), and Hyderabad (81 μg/m³) showed lower PM10 levels than Indore.
    • Overall Trends: 103 of 130 cities reduced PM10 since 2017–18. 64 cities achieved a 20% reduction, while 25 cities achieved a 40% reduction. Only 22 cities met the national standard of ≤60 μg/m³, with Chennai the only metro (58 μg/m³). Among metros, Mumbai recorded the highest decline (44%), followed by Kolkata (37%), Hyderabad (26%), Bengaluru (26%), Delhi (15%), and Chennai (12%).
    [UPSC 2022] In the context of WHO Air Quality Guidelines, consider the following statements:

    1. The 24-hour mean of PM 2.5 should not exceed 15 μg/m3 and annual mean of PM 2.5 should not exceed 5 μg/m3.

    2. In a year, the highest levels of ozone pollution occur during the periods of inclement weather.

    3. PM 10 can penetrate the long barrier and enter the bloodstream.

    4. Excessive ozone in the air can trigger asthma.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    Options: (a) 1,3 and 4 (b) 1 and 4 only* (c) 2,3 and 4 (d) 1 and 2 only