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  • [28th May 2026] The Hindu OpED: Tariff to carbon, the new rules shaping India’s trade

    PYQ Relevance[UPSC 2022] Discuss global warming and mention its effects on the global climate. Explain the control measures to bring down the level of greenhouse gases which cause global warming, in the light of the Kyoto Protocol, 1997.Linkage: CBAM directly links climate action with trade regulation, making carbon emissions economically consequential for exports. It bridges climate governance and international trade policy.

    Mentor’s Comment

    The European Union’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) will enter its definitive phase from January 1, 2026, imposing a carbon-linked levy on imports based on embedded emissions. This marks a major shift because, for the first time, global trade access is increasingly being linked to carbon intensity of production rather than conventional tariffs alone. For India, sectors such as steel, cement, aluminium, fertilizers, electricity, and hydrogen face direct exposure.

    What is the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)?

    1. It is the European Union’s policy tool designed to put a fair price on carbon emitted during the production of carbon-intensive goods entering the EU. 
    2. By charging importers for embedded emissions, it aims to prevent “carbon leakage,” ensuring EU producers are not at a disadvantage compared to foreign producers and encouraging cleaner global industrial production.

    Key Aspects of CBAM:

    1. Purpose: Mitigates the risk of carbon leakage, where companies move production to countries with lenient environmental regulations.
    2. Covered Sectors: Initially, CBAM covers imports of iron and steel, cement, fertilizers, aluminum, hydrogen, and electricity.
    3. How it Works: Importers must report the GHG emissions embedded in their products. From 2026, they will need to purchase “CBAM certificates” to pay for these emissions, aligned with the carbon price paid by EU producers under the EU Emissions Trading System (ETS).
    4. Goal: The policy is a central part of the “Fit for 55” package, aiming for a 55% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2030, compared to 1990 levels.

    How is CBAM reshaping the rules of global trade?

    1. Carbon-linked Market Access: Links export competitiveness to embedded carbon emissions rather than only product quality or price competitiveness.
    2. Carbon Leakage Prevention: Imposes charges on imported products to prevent industries from relocating production to countries with weaker environmental regulations.
    3. Trade Governance Shift: Moves global trade away from traditional tariff barriers toward climate-linked compliance mechanisms.
    4. Policy Diffusion: Encourages wider adoption of carbon-pricing policies by developed economies, increasing compliance burdens globally.
    5. Competitiveness Redefinition: Makes production efficiency dependent not only on cost but also on carbon efficiency of manufacturing processes.
    6. Example: The EU’s CBAM applies to steel, cement, aluminium, fertilizers, electricity, and hydrogen, sectors with high embedded carbon intensity.

    Why does CBAM pose a major challenge for India’s exports?

    1. Export Competitiveness Risk: Increases costs for carbon-intensive exports entering the European market.
    2. Steel and Aluminium Exposure: Creates immediate vulnerabilities because these sectors depend significantly on European markets and involve carbon-intensive production.
    3. Compliance Burden: Forces exporters to adopt cleaner technologies and stricter reporting systems to retain market access.
    4. Profit Margin Compression: Shrinks margins as firms absorb additional compliance costs or face stricter contractual requirements.
    5. Buyer Preference Shift: Encourages European buyers to prefer low-emission suppliers, reducing competitiveness of carbon-intensive exporters.
    6. Example: Although EU importers formally pay CBAM charges, the burden may shift to Indian exporters through stricter contracts and supplier selection mechanisms.

    How could CBAM indirectly affect India’s domestic economy?

    1. Fertilizer Price Transmission: Raises input costs because India imports fertilizers from regions affected by CBAM-related carbon pricing.
    2. Import Cost Escalation: Increases prices of imported emission-intensive goods, affecting production costs domestically.
    3. Agricultural Vulnerability: Raises fertilizer costs, potentially affecting farm profitability and food prices.
    4. Inflationary Pressure: Creates cost-push inflation through higher import prices of industrial inputs.
    5. Supply Chain Spillover: Extends impacts beyond directly targeted export sectors through global production linkages.
    6. Example: Major fertilizer exporters to India, Egypt, Russia, Morocco, and China, may pass carbon-compliance costs into export prices.

    How is CBAM different from traditional non-tariff measures (NTMs)?

    1. Structural Difference: Functions as a price-based and quantifiable carbon levy, unlike conventional product standards.
    2. Compliance Nature: Traditional NTMs rely on qualitative product standards, whereas CBAM directly prices embedded emissions.
    3. Reduced Interpretational Scope: Creates measurable obligations linked to carbon emissions rather than broad compliance requirements.
    4. Carbon Accountability: Establishes a direct relationship between production emissions and market access.
    5. Key Distinction: Traditional product standards determine whether a product qualifies for entry. CBAM determines how expensive market access becomes based on carbon intensity.

    Why are developing countries particularly vulnerable to carbon-linked trade barriers?

    1. Technology Constraints: Face limited access to low-carbon technologies and cleaner industrial systems.
    2. Cost Asymmetry: Experience higher transition costs because carbon-neutral production remains expensive.
    3. Equity Concerns: Encounter climate-linked barriers despite historically lower contributions to global emissions.
    4. Market Access Restrictions: Risk exclusion from developed markets if carbon standards tighten further.
    5. Trade Negotiation Imbalance: Face pressure to comply despite differences in developmental capacity.
    6. Example: India’s ongoing Free Trade Agreement (FTA) negotiations with the European Union continue even as CBAM raises concerns regarding fair market access.

    What domestic reforms must India undertake to remain competitive?

    1. Clean Energy Investment: Strengthens industrial decarbonisation through renewable energy and cleaner fuel adoption.
    2. Carbon Efficiency: Improves industrial competitiveness through lower emission-intensive production processes.
    3. Industrial Modernisation: Facilitates adoption of cleaner technologies in steel, cement, aluminium, and fertilizer sectors.
    4. Soil Health Management: Reduces fertilizer dependency through effective implementation of the Soil Health Card Scheme and balanced nutrient application.
    5. Domestic Production Capacity: Lowers import vulnerability by expanding local manufacturing of emission-intensive inputs.
    6. Carbon Policy Framework: Ensures gradual implementation of domestic carbon-pricing mechanisms.

    How should India respond at the international level?

    1. Equitable Trade Negotiation: Seeks fair treatment for developing countries in climate-linked trade regimes.
    2. Transition Support: Demands technology transfer and transitional finance from developed countries.
    3. Climate Justice Framework: Strengthens arguments around Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR).
    4. Multilateral Coordination: Builds coalitions among developing countries against discriminatory carbon-linked trade measures.
    5. WTO Compatibility Concerns: Questions whether climate-linked tariffs violate principles of non-discrimination in trade.

    Conclusion

    CBAM represents a structural transformation in global trade where carbon intensity increasingly determines market access. For India, the challenge lies not merely in adapting to climate-linked trade regimes but in balancing industrial competitiveness, developmental priorities, and climate commitments. A calibrated strategy combining domestic industrial decarbonisation, technology adoption, and equitable global negotiations will remain essential.

  • VB-G RAM G rules: What changes as scheme set to replace NREGS

    Why in the News?

    The Union government has released draft rules for VB-GRAM G, which is scheduled to replace the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) from July 1, 2025.

    What is the Viksit Bharat-Guarantee for Rozgar and Ajeevika Mission (Gramin) (VB-G RAM G) Act, 2025?

    1. It is a 2025 legislative overhaul of the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA). 
    2. It guarantees 125 days of employment (up from 100) per rural household to align with the Viksit Bharat 2047 vision.

    Key Aspects of VB-GRAM G:

    1. Employment Guarantee: Increases guaranteed wage employment to 125 days in a financial year.
    2. Replacement of MGNREGA: The act shifts from a demand-driven model to a supply-driven, budget-capped framework aimed at producing quality assets rather than only providing relief.
    3. Focus Areas: Prioritizes water security, core rural infrastructure, livelihood assets (e.g., storage, livestock shelters), and climate resilience.
    4. Implementation: Implemented as a centrally sponsored scheme with 60:40 fund sharing between Centre and States.
    5. Planning & Tech: Works are planned through Viksit Gram Panchayat Plans and integrated with digital tools like AI-based fraud detection, geo-tagging, and biometric attendance.
    6. Agricultural Support: Empowers states to restrict work during peak agricultural seasons to ensure labor availability for farmers

    How does VB-GRAM G differ structurally from MGNREGS?

    1. Employment Days: Increases annual guaranteed workdays from 100 to 125 days, with a provision for 60-day employment during sowing and harvesting seasons to ensure farm labour availability.
    2. Nature of Guarantee: Alters the rights-based legal guarantee under MGNREGS into a revised framework where employment and wage mechanisms operate through a modified mission structure.
    3. Financial Responsibility: Transfers part of the funding burden to State governments, unlike MGNREGS where the Centre bore 100% wage expenditure.
    4. Institutional Shift: Introduces a new administrative and allocation mechanism under VB-GRAM G rules, replacing existing MGNREGS operational provisions.
    5. Transitional Framework: Ensures continuity for existing job card holders. Workers registered under MGNREGS can continue employment after e-KYC verification under the new system.

    Why is the change in Centre-State fiscal relations significant?

    1. Normative Allocation Formula: Introduces state-wise fund allocation based on parameters determined by the Centre instead of direct expenditure-driven funding.
    2. Sixteenth Finance Commission Linkage: Uses recommendations of the Sixteenth Finance Commission for determining normative allocations.
    3. Fiscal Decentralisation: Requires States to bear a proportion of expenditure, increasing fiscal responsibility at the State level.
    4. Uneven State Impact: States such as Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Gujarat, and Tamil Nadu may receive higher allocations, while Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Chhattisgarh could receive lower allocations compared to MGNREGS.
    5. Compliance-Based Incentives: Allocations may depend on timely social audits, grievance redressal compliance, and panchayat performance indicators.

    Will the new framework strengthen or weaken rural employment security?

    1. Higher Workdays: Expands annual employment entitlement to 125 days, potentially improving wage opportunities.
    2. Agricultural Synchronisation: Ensures labour availability during critical sowing and harvesting seasons, reducing labour shortages in agriculture.
    3. Reduced Legal Certainty: Weakens the statutory employment guarantee character associated with MGNREGS.
    4. State Capacity Dependence: Makes employment outcomes increasingly dependent on State fiscal capacity and administrative efficiency.
    5. Payment Continuity: Maintains Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) into bank or post office accounts for wage payments.

    How do administrative reforms seek to improve implementation?

    1. National-Level Steering Committee: Strengthens policy oversight and implementation monitoring.
    2. Grievance Redress Rules: Ensures institutional mechanisms for dispute resolution and accountability.
    3. e-KYC Verification: Facilitates beneficiary verification and reduction of ghost beneficiaries.
    4. Administrative Expenditure Rules: Defines expenditure ceilings and implementation procedures.
    5. Central Gramin Rozgar Council: Establishes an institutional mechanism for programme coordination and policy supervision.

    What are the major concerns associated with VB-GRAM G?

    1. Dilution of Rights-Based Welfare: Weakens the legal employment guarantee embedded under MGNREGA, 2005.
    2. Fiscal Stress on States: Increases expenditure burden on fiscally weaker States.
    3. Regional Disparities: Creates differential outcomes due to normative allocation formulas.
    4. Conditional Funding: Links allocations with compliance indicators, potentially disadvantageing weaker administrative units.
    5. Implementation Uncertainty: Transitional changes may create confusion in worker registration and wage continuity.

    Could VB-GRAM G reshape India’s welfare federalism?

    1. Cooperative Federalism: Expands State responsibility in rural employment implementation.
    2. Performance-Based Governance: Links funding with measurable governance outcomes.
    3. Targeted Resource Allocation: Moves from universal expenditure reimbursement toward formula-based transfers.
    4. Rural Labour Market Integration: Aligns employment guarantees with agricultural labour demand cycles.
    5. Welfare Rationalisation: Reflects broader efforts to reduce Union fiscal expenditure on large entitlement programmes.

    Conclusion

    The proposed VB-GRAM G framework reflects a major transition in India’s rural welfare architecture from a rights-based employment guarantee model to a fiscally decentralised and performance-linked framework. While higher workdays, agricultural season alignment, and compliance-based governance may improve efficiency, concerns remain regarding weakened legal guarantees, uneven State capacities, and reduced welfare certainty. Its long-term success will depend on balancing fiscal sustainability with rural livelihood security, while preserving the welfare objectives that made MGNREGS a critical social safety net.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2024] Development and welfare schemes for the vulnerable, by its nature, are discriminatory in approach.” Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer 

    Linkage: VB-GRAM G directly changes Centre-State fiscal relations by shifting part of the funding burden to States and introducing a normative allocation model. The article is fundamentally about fiscal federalism and welfare governance, making this PYQ the closest thematic match.

  • SC upholds SIR as EC’s constitutional duty

    Why in the News?

    In a landmark judgement, the Supreme Court of India unanimously upheld the Election Commission of India’s (ECI) authority to conduct a Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls.

    What is Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls?

    The Special Intensive Revision (SIR) is a massive, door-to-door voter list verification and clean-up exercise conducted by the Election Commission of India (ECI). Its core philosophy is to ensure that “no eligible citizen is left out while no ineligible person is included in the Electoral Roll“.

    The ECI typically uses two different methods to maintain voter lists:

    1. Summary Revision (Routine): Done annually or before minor elections. It updates the voter list mostly at a desk level, adding new 18-year-olds or processing forms submitted voluntarily by citizens without visiting every home.
    2. Special Intensive Revision (SIR): An extraordinary, physically demanding exercise. Booth Level Officers (BLOs) must physically visit every single household in a designated region to manually verify the identity and status of every registered voter.

    The Step-by-Step SIR Process:

    1. Pre-Enumeration: The ECI prints unique, pre-filled Enumeration Forms (EFs) for every registered voter using existing databases.
    2. House-to-House Verification: Government-appointed Booth Level Officers (BLOs) make at least three distinct visits to every home. They hand over the EFs, help family members link entries with older historical lists, and note down changes.
    3. Data Collection: The BLOs mark down and flag voters who fall into the “ASDD” category: Absent, Shifted, Dead, or Duplicate. New eligible voters are provided Form 6 to register immediately.
    4. Draft and Hearings: A purged “Draft Electoral Roll” is published. Anyone whose name is dropped or flagged is issued an official notice and given a fair hearing to provide supportive documentation (like Aadhaar, government IDs, or old birth records) to prove their eligibility.
    5. Final Roll Publication: Once all claims, disputes, and appeals are legally settled by District Magistrates, the finalized, clean voter list is published.

    Why has the Supreme Court upheld Bihar’s SIR as constitutionally valid?

    1. Constitutional Mandate: Recognises that the ECI has a constitutional obligation to conduct free and fair elections, which requires maintaining accurate and updated electoral rolls.
    2. Citizenship Requirement: Affirms that citizenship constitutes a precondition for enrolment in electoral rolls, making scrutiny of citizenship legally permissible during roll revision.
    3. Article 324 Authority: Strengthens the ECI’s powers under Article 324, which grants superintendence, direction, and control over elections.
    4. Electoral Integrity: Accepts that electoral democracy depends not merely on polling but also on accurate voter identification and authentic electoral rolls.
    5. Judicial Validation: Rejects the argument that SIR amounts to a “backdoor citizenship screening exercise”, holding that such verification falls within EC’s legitimate powers.

    Why did Bihar’s Special Intensive Revision become politically and legally controversial?

    1. Voter Exclusion Concerns: Critics argued that SIR risked excluding legitimate voters through stringent verification measures.
    2. Citizenship Screening Allegation: Petitioners claimed the exercise indirectly imposed a citizenship verification process under the guise of electoral revision.
    3. Pending Judicial Challenge: The second phase of SIR commenced even while legal challenges remained pending before the Supreme Court, intensifying political contestation.
    4. Political Opposition: Opposition parties termed the verdict a setback for electoral inclusiveness and democratic participation.
    5. Federal Implications: Concerns emerged regarding possible replication of such exercises in other States, potentially altering electoral politics.

    What constitutional and legal reasoning did the Supreme Court rely upon?

    1. Electoral Roll Purity: The Court held that maintaining a clean electoral roll remains essential to constitutional democracy.
    2. Constitutional Competence: Recognised ECI’s authority to examine citizenship issues only for electoral enrolment purposes, without replacing statutory citizenship authorities.
    3. Citizenship Adjudication: Clarified that disputed citizenship cases requiring determination under the Citizenship Act, 1955 must be referred to competent authorities.
    4. Representation of the People Framework: Linked EC’s powers to the Representation of the People Act, 1950, governing electoral registration.
    5. Judicial Interpretation of Article 324: Expanded the interpretation of Article 324 as a continuous supervisory power extending beyond election-day management.

    How serious were inaccuracies in Bihar’s electoral rolls that justified the SIR exercise?

    1. Large-Scale Migration: The Court recognised substantial migration patterns affecting voter records.
    2. Duplicate Entries: Accepted concerns regarding repeated duplication of voter names, creating inaccuracies.
    3. Demographic Change: Acknowledged shifts in population and residence affecting electoral eligibility.
    4. Death and Non-reporting: Identified failures in removing deceased voters due to inadequate reporting systems.
    5. Massive Scale of Electoral Revision: Bihar’s final electoral roll published in September 2024 recorded nearly 7.42 crore electors, compared with approximately 7.89 crore voters notified in June 2025, indicating substantial revision.
    6. Purged Voter Data: Around 65 lakh electors were reportedly excluded after verification, making the exercise politically sensitive and administratively significant.

    Does the judgment expand the Election Commission’s institutional power?

    1. Institutional Strengthening: Enhances EC’s constitutional legitimacy in undertaking intensive roll verification exercises.
    2. Supervisory Expansion: Interprets Article 324 broadly to include continuous oversight over electoral machinery.
    3. Administrative Responsibility: Places responsibility on ECI to balance electoral purity with inclusiveness.
    4. Future Precedent: Creates judicial precedent for similar voter verification exercises in other States.
    5. Accountability Requirement: Simultaneously requires procedural safeguards to prevent arbitrary deletions or disenfranchisement.

    What concerns remain regarding the implementation of SIR?

    1. Risk of Exclusion: Vulnerable populations, migrants, marginalised communities, and those lacking documents may face exclusion risks.
    2. Documentation Challenges: Citizenship and residence verification may disproportionately burden poorer citizens.
    3. Administrative Discretion: Excessive discretion by local officials may produce errors or politically motivated exclusions.
    4. Electoral Trust Deficit: Perceived bias in revision exercises may reduce confidence in electoral neutrality.
    5. Democratic Balance: Ensures electoral integrity but requires safeguards to preserve universal franchise.

    Conclusion

    The Supreme Court’s endorsement of Bihar’s SIR reinforces the Election Commission’s constitutional authority to preserve electoral integrity through accurate voter rolls. However, the legitimacy of such exercises will depend on procedural fairness, transparency, and safeguards against wrongful exclusion. The challenge lies in balancing electoral purity with inclusive democratic participation.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2022] Discuss the role of the Election Commission of India in the light of the evolution of the Model Code of Conduct

    Linkage: This question links to the constitutional powers and institutional autonomy of the ECI under Article 324, which the present judgment substantially expands in the context of electoral roll verification.

  • National Health Accounts (NHA) 2022-23

    Why in News?

    The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare released the National Health Accounts (NHA) Estimates 2022-23 showing a decline in Out-of-Pocket Expenditure (OOPE) and a rise in government health spending.

    Key Findings

    Decline in Out-of-Pocket Expenditure (OOPE)

    • OOPE share in Total Health Expenditure (THE):
      • 64.2% in 2013-14
      • 43.4% in 2022-23
    • Indicates reduced financial burden on households

    Reasons for Decline

    Ayushman Arogya Mandirs

    Over 1.8 lakh wellness centres providing:

    • Free drugs and diagnostics
    • Teleconsultation
    • Maternal and child healthcare
    • Non-communicable disease services
    • Preventive healthcare

    Increased Government Spending

    • Government health expenditure rose:
      • From 1.15% of GDP (2013-14)
      • To 1.43% of GDP (2022-23)
    • Reached 1.84% during COVID-19 in 2021-22

    Other Key Trends

    • Rise in Per Capita Government Health Expenditure: Increased from ₹1,042 to ₹2,786 between 2013-14 and 2022-23
    • Increase in Social Security Expenditure: Rose from 6% to 9.9%
    • Growth in Private Health Insurance: Increased from 3.4% to 9.2%

    What is OOPE?

    • Out-of-Pocket Expenditure refers to direct payments made by households for healthcare services at the point of use.

    Significance

    • Better healthcare access
    • Reduced catastrophic health expenditure
    • Progress toward Universal Health Coverage (UHC)
    • Strengthening preventive healthcare

    Challenges

    • OOPE still remains high at 43.4%
    • Pharmaceutical expenses continue to drive household spending
    • Rural and regional disparities persist

    [2023] Consider the following statements:
    Statement-I: India’s public sector health care system largely focuses on curative care with limited preventive, promotive and rehabilitative care.
    Statement-II: Under India’s decentralized approach to health care delivery, the States are primarily responsible for organizing health services.
    Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

    [A] Both Statement-I and Statement-l are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I.

    [B] Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-is not the correct explanation for Statement-l.

    [C] Statement-l is correct but Statement-II is incorrect.

    [D] Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-Il is correct.

  • AMCA Fighter Project

    Why in the news?

    The Ministry of Defence issued the Request for Proposal (RFP) for the indigenous Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA) programme to shortlisted private firms.

    Shortlisted Firms

    • Larsen & Toubro + Bharat Electronics Limited combine
    • Tata Advanced Systems
    • Bharat Forge + BEML consortium

    About AMCA

    • India’s indigenous fifth-generation stealth fighter aircraft
    • Developed to meet long-term requirements of the Indian Air Force
    • Being designed by the Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA)

    Key Features

    • Stealth capability
      • Materials Used:
      • Carbon composites
      • Radar-absorbent coatings containing ferrite or iron ball paint
      • Composite polymers and graphene-based materials
    • Advanced avionics includes:
      • AESA radar
      • Sensor fusion
      • Electronic warfare suites
      • Helmet-mounted displays
    • Supercruise capability (Supersonic speed in Dry Thrust)
    • Next-generation combat systems

    Programme Highlights

    • Government plans to build five prototypes
    • Selected private company will partner with ADA
    • Part of the “Make in India” and defence indigenisation push
    • Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) reportedly excluded from current process

    Consider the following statements regarding the fifth-generation fighter jet configurations of India and Russia:
    1.The Sukhoi Su-57, Russia’s operational fifth-generation stealth fighter, features supercruise capabilities but utilizes conventional round exhaust nozzles.
    2.Under proposed partnerships, Russia has offered a twin-seat variant of the Su-57, which allows a second crew member to manage manned-unmanned teaming operations with stealth drones.
    3.India’s indigenous fifth-generation Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA) is being developed and manufactured solely under the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), with zero foreign collaboration for its engines.
    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    [A] 1 and 2 only

    [B] 2 only

    [C] 1 and 3 only

    [D] 1, 2, and 3

  • New Evergreen Tree Species Discovered in Kerala

    Why in News?

    Scientists from Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute discovered a new evergreen tree species, Humboldtia nairiana, in Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuary.

    About the Species

    • Belongs to the genus Humboldtia
    • Found in riparian forests of the southern Western Ghats
    • Named in honour of plant biotechnologist G.M. Nair

    Discovery

    • First collected during a 2010 floristic survey along the Cheenikkala-Pandimotta forest trail
    • Seedlings were conserved ex-situ at the JNTBGRI Arboretum
    • Flowering and fruiting observed in 2022
    • Morphological studies confirmed it as a new species

    Distribution

    • Strictly endemic to Kerala
    • Known only from the Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve

    Conservation Status

    • Wild population is fragile and limited
    • Categorised as “Data Deficient” under IUCN criteria
    • Highlights need for habitat protection and field monitoring

    Ecological Importance

    • Adds to the biodiversity significance of the Western Ghats
    • Shows importance of riparian forest ecosystems
    • Strengthens conservation value of Agasthyamala region

    About Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve

    • Part of the Western Ghats
    • UNESCO-recognised biosphere reserve
    • Known for high endemism and rich biodiversity

    [2019] “Neyyar, Peppara and Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuaries” are part of which of the following?

    [A] Agasthyamalai biosphere reserve

    [B] Nilgiri biosphere reserve

    [C] Seshachalam Hills

    [D] Panna biosphere reserve

  • Long-tailed Duskhawker Rediscovered in Arunachal Pradesh

    Why in News?

    A rare dragonfly species, the Long-tailed Duskhawker, has been rediscovered in Arunachal Pradesh after 110 years in Namdapha National Park and Tiger Reserve.

    About the Species

    • Scientific name: Gynacantha khasiaca
    • Belongs to the order Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies)
    • Known for:
      • Near 360° vision
      • Compound eyes with thousands of lenses
      • Ability to hover still in air

    Rediscovery

    • Last recorded in 1914 from the erstwhile Abor Hills
    • Rediscovered at Deban in Namdapha National Park in October 2024
    • Study published in the Journal of Threatened Taxa

    Ecological Importance of Dragonflies

    Dragonflies and damselflies are:

    • Predators and prey in freshwater ecosystems
    • Indicators of healthy aquatic habitats
    • Important for ecological balance

    Odonata Diversity

    • Global: 6,442 species across 693 genera
    • India: 504 species and 27 subspecies
    • Arunachal Pradesh: Around 110 species recorded

    Distribution of Long-tailed Duskhawker

    Apart from Arunachal Pradesh, reported from:

    • Assam
    • Maharashtra
    • Meghalaya
    • Uttarakhand
    • West Bengal

    Significance of Rediscovery

    • Highlights rich biodiversity of Northeast India
    • Emphasises habitat protection and biodiversity monitoring
    • Shows importance of citizen science in conservation

    About Namdapha National Park

    • Located in Changlang district, Arunachal Pradesh
    • One of India’s largest protected areas
    • Known for tropical rainforests and rich wildlife diversity

    [2017] Due to some reasons, if there is a huge fall in the population of species of butterflies, what could be its likely consequence/consequences?
    1. Pollination of some plants could be adversely affected.
    2. There could be a drastic increase in the fungal infections of some cultivated plants.
    3. It could lead to a fall in the population of some species of wasps, spiders and birds.
    Select the correct using the code given below:

    [A] 1 only

    [B] 2 and 3 only

    [C] 1 and 3 only

    [D] 1, 2 and 3

  • Supreme Court Upholds Bihar SIR Exercise

    Why in News?

    The Supreme Court of India upheld the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls conducted by the Election Commission of India in Bihar.

    What is SIR?

    Special Intensive Revision (SIR) is a comprehensive revision of electoral rolls to ensure:

    • Accuracy of voter lists
    • Removal of duplicate or ineligible entries
    • Free and fair elections

    Supreme Court’s Key Observations

    • Electoral roll purity is essential for democracy.
    • EC can verify citizenship status for inclusion/exclusion in voter rolls.
    • SIR is linked to Article 324 of the Constitution.

    Court Directions

    • Names removed from Bihar rolls as “non-citizens” must be referred to the Centre under the Citizenship Act within four weeks.
    • Genuine citizens must be restored before future elections.
    • Wrongly deleted voters can approach courts.

    Constitutional and Legal Basis

    • Article 324: Powers of EC to supervise elections
    • Representation of the People Act, 1950
    • Registration of Electors Rules, 1960

    Reasons Supporting SIR

    The Court accepted EC’s concerns regarding:

    • Migration
    • Duplicate entries
    • Unreported deaths
    • Urbanisation
    • Long gap since last intensive revision

    Safeguards Mentioned by Court

    • Notice before deletion
    • Opportunity of hearing
    • Aadhaar accepted as indicative document
    • Publication of excluded voters list

    [2017] Right to vote and to be elected in India is a

    A. Fundamental Right
    B. Natural Right
    C. Constitutional Right
    DLegal Right

  • [27th May 2026] The Hindu OpED: Rajya Sabha Defections, constitutional questions

    PYQ Relevance[UPSC 2020] The anti-defection law has failed to achieve its intended purpose. Discuss.Linkage: The PYQ tests understanding of the Tenth Schedule, defections, party discipline, and constitutional loopholes. The AAP Rajya Sabha controversy exposes ambiguity in the merger exception under Paragraph 4, questioning whether legislative majorities can bypass the original political party. 

    Mentor’s Comment

    A constitutional controversy has emerged after seven of AAP’s ten Rajya Sabha MPs reportedly invoked the merger exception under the Tenth Schedule of the Constitution of India to join the BJP. They have claimed support of over two-thirds of legislators. The episode has triggered a constitutional debate on whether legislators alone can claim merger without approval of the original political party, making it a major test for the Tenth Schedule.

    How did India’s anti-defection framework evolve from permitting splits to restricting defections?

    1. 1950 (Original Constitution): Articles 102 and 191 outlined basic disqualifications like holding an office of profit or unsound mind. The President or Governor decided cases based on the Election Commission’s opinion. Political defections were not explicitly penalized.
    2. 52nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1985: Introduced the Tenth Schedule (Anti-Defection Law) to address frequent political defections and instability.
      1. Objective of the Law: Ensures political stability by discouraging elected representatives from abandoning party affiliation for political gain.
      2. Split Provision (Paragraph 3): Recognised a “split” if one-third members of a legislature party separated, thereby protecting them from disqualification.
    3. 2003 (91st Amendment): Deleted Paragraph 3 entirely. This eliminated the “split” defense, meaning individual or minor group defections always lead to disqualification.
      1. Under Paragraph 3, if a faction consisting of one-third or more of a party’s elected legislators decided to break away, the law deemed it a “split”. This newly formed faction was completely exempt from disqualification and could function as a separate group or support an opposition coalition without losing their seats.
    4. Shift in Constitutional Philosophy: Restored primacy of the political party over temporary legislative factions.
    Dinesh Goswami Committee (1990): Recommended tightening anti-defection provisions to reduce political opportunism.170th Law Commission Report (1999): Supported removal of the split provision due to misuse in legitimising defections.

    Why does the AAP Rajya Sabha episode raise constitutional concerns beyond routine defections?

    1. National-Level Significance: Involves Rajya Sabha MPs at the Union level, unlike previous state-level controversies.
    2. Striking Data: Seven out of ten AAP Rajya Sabha MPs (over two-thirds) reportedly sought merger with BJP.
    3. Merger Exception Invoked: Legislators relied on Paragraph 4 of the Tenth Schedule, claiming exemption from disqualification.
    4. Constitutional Question: Raises uncertainty regarding whether legislators alone can engineer a merger without consent of the parent political party.
    5. Opposition Integrity: Affects the constitutional role of the Opposition in parliamentary democracy, especially if legislative majorities can dissolve party identity.
    6. Institutional Consequences: Tests the authority of the Rajya Sabha Chairman in deciding disqualification under the Tenth Schedule.

    Does the “merger exception” under Paragraph 4 permit legislators to override the original political party?

    Paragraph 4 refers to the “Merger Exception” within the Tenth Schedule of the Constitution of India. It provides legal immunity from disqualification for elected members (MPs or MLAs) when their political party merges with another party.

    The Core Mechanism: The “Twin Test”: To legally claim a merger and escape disqualification under Paragraph 4, a specific two-step requirement must be met: 

    1. Party-Level Merger (The Origin): The original political party must decide to merge with another political party.
    2. Legislative Agreement (The Numbers): Following the organizational merger, not less than two-thirds (66.6%) of the elected legislators of that party in the House must agree to accept the merger.
    Key Provisions of Paragraph 4
    Paragraph 4(1): Protection for Members: States that a legislator will not be disqualified if their original political party merges with another, and they choose to either join the new party or function as a separate group.
    Paragraph 4(2): The Deeming Fiction: Establishes that a merger is legally deemed to have taken place if and only if a minimum of two-thirds of the legislature party’s members give their consent to it.
    1. Core Constitutional Ambiguity: Uncertainty persists on whether legislators can independently trigger merger or merely implement a party-level decision.
    2. Judicial Position: In Subhash Desai (2023), the Supreme Court reinforced primacy of the political party over the legislature wing.
    3. Constitutional Concern: Allowing legislators alone to merge may enable temporary legislative majorities to appropriate party identity and electoral mandate.
    4. Democratic Implication: Risks weakening party stability and Opposition politics within parliamentary democracy.

    How has the judiciary interpreted the relationship between legislature parties and political parties?

    Core Judicial Principles

    1. Constitutional Hierarchy: The political party is the parent body. The legislature party is its subordinate wing and cannot sever ties or act independently.
    2. Source of Legitimacy: Legislators win elections based on the political party’s ticket, manifesto, platform, and campaign symbols. Therefore, their allegiance remains tied to the organizational party.
    3. The Whip Authority: The power to appoint the Chief Whip and the Party Leader belongs strictly to the political party organization, not to a majority faction of legislators.
    4. Protection vs. Usurpation: The “deeming fiction” in Paragraph 4 protects a two-thirds legislative majority from disqualification only after an actual party merger. It does not empower them to hijack the party’s identity or organizational assets.

    Landmark Judgment: Subhash Desai v. Governor of Maharashtra (2023): In this pivotal case, a 5-judge Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court firmly established the supremacy of the political party over the legislative wing:

    1. Continuous Guidance: The Court ruled that a political party’s influence does not end on election day; it continuously guides its elected representatives throughout their tenure.
    2. Illegal Appointments: The Court declared the Eknath Shinde faction’s appointment of their own Whip and Leader as illegal, stating that the Speaker must recognize only the Whip authorized by the parent political party.
    3. No Shield for Rebellion: Internal dissent or achieving a legislative majority cannot be used as a tool to bypass the Anti-Defection Law, especially since the “split” doctrine (Paragraph 3) was deleted in 2003.

    Structural Comparison

    FeaturePolitical Party (Parent Body)Legislature Party (Subordinate Wing)
    CompositionOffice bearers, cadres, and members nationwide/statewide.Only the elected MPs or MLAs in the House.
    Constitutional RoleHolds the fundamental democratic mandate and symbols.Executes the party’s agenda within the legislature.
    Control of the WhipYes. Has the exclusive right to appoint the Whip.No. Must follow the Whip appointed by the parent party.

    Can legislative majorities appropriate the identity of a political party?

    1. Constitutional Identity: A political party derives continuity from its organisation, leadership, ideology, and electoral mandate, not merely elected legislators.
    2. Risk of Party Capture: Permitting temporary legislative majorities to claim party identity may enable numerical capture of parties, weakening internal democracy and organisational autonomy.
    3. Legislature-Party Distinction: Legislators derive legitimacy from the party’s symbol and mandate; the legislature wing remains subordinate to the parent political organisation.
    4. Judicial Position: In Subhash Desai (2023), the Supreme Court reinforced primacy of the political party, including authority over appointment of the Chief Whip.
    5. Parliamentary Consequence: Allowing legislators to appropriate party identity may undermine Opposition politics and weaken the anti-defection law’s objective of preserving party-system integrity.

    What are the broader implications for parliamentary democracy and Opposition politics?

    1. Opposition Preservation: Anti-defection law indirectly protects parliamentary dissent, especially in the Rajya Sabha.
    2. Constitutional Morality: Prevents legislative arithmetic from undermining electoral mandates and voter trust.
    3. Need for Doctrinal Clarity: Ambiguity in Paragraph 4 of the Tenth Schedule over whether merger requires party approval or only legislative majority necessitates clear judicial interpretation to prevent inconsistent decisions and constitutional instability.
    4. Federal Relevance: Similar disputes in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Arunachal Pradesh, and Manipur show that ambiguity in anti-defection law is a recurring issue across States. This necessitates uniform constitutional principles to ensure consistency and political stability.
    5. Democratic Stability: Ensures continuity of party-based representation, which remains central to parliamentary governance.

    Conclusion

    The Rajya Sabha defection episode involving AAP is not merely a question of political realignment but a constitutional test regarding the relationship between legislative numbers and political legitimacy. The interpretation of Paragraph 4 of the Tenth Schedule will shape the future of India’s anti-defection regime, the integrity of political parties, and the institutional strength of parliamentary opposition.

  • The judiciary’s role in complete justice

    Why in the News?

    The debate around Article 142 has gained attention after the Supreme Court recognised safe travel on National Highways as part of Article 21 (Right to Life) in In Re: Phalodi Accident vs NHAI (2025). Acting suo motu, the Court flagged a serious concern, over 30% of road deaths occur on National Highways, despite their limited share in total road length. The judgment signals a stronger judicial role where existing laws fail to ensure justice.

    What is Article 142 of the Constitution of India?

    1. It states that the Supreme Court may pass any decree or order necessary for doing complete justice.
    2. Article 142 is extraordinary, not unlimited. The Court has repeatedly said it cannot violate substantive law or the Constitution and must respect separation of powers.
    3. Examples of Use:
      1. Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1991): SC used Article 142 for settlement-related directions.
      2. Ayodhya Verdict (2019): Court used Article 142 to allot alternative land for mosque construction.
      3. Divorce Cases: SC has dissolved marriages irretrievably even when statutory conditions were not fully met.
      4. Phalodi Accident Case (2025): Used to strengthen road safety and recognise safe highways under Article 21.

    Why has Article 142 become central to the idea of “complete justice”?

    1. Constitutional Empowerment: Article 142 authorises the Supreme Court to pass orders necessary for ensuring complete justice where statutory mechanisms are inadequate.
    2. Residual Jurisdiction: Functions as a constitutional reserve power in situations where ordinary legal procedures fail to address exceptional injustice.
    3. Justice Beyond Technicalities: Enables equitable relief even where procedural or technical legal barriers exist.
    4. Constitutional Safety Valve: Fills institutional gaps when existing laws are silent, rigid, or incapable of immediate grievance redressal.
    5. Expansion of Rights-Based Jurisprudence: Strengthens substantive justice under Article 21, including newer dimensions such as road safety and dignified living.
    6. Illustration: Highway Safety Judgment (2025): In In Re: Phalodi Accident vs NHAI (2025), the Court recognised safe and motorable roads as part of Right to Life, while responding to alarming road fatalities.

    How did the Supreme Court justify judicial intervention in the highway safety case?

    1. Suo Motu Cognisance: The Court initiated proceedings after two road accidents in November 2025 led to 34 deaths.
    2. Right to Life Expansion: Interpreted Article 21 to include safe travel and well-maintained highways.
    3. Governance Failure: Judicial intervention emerged against the backdrop of persistent road safety failures.
    4. Striking Data: National Highways accounted for over 30% of road fatalities in India, despite comprising a limited share of total roads.
    5. Policy Context: Government targets 50% reduction in road accident fatalities by 2030 through the 4E Strategy:
      1. Engineering: Improves road infrastructure and black-spot correction.
      2. Education: Strengthens road safety awareness.
      3. Enforcement: Ensures traffic regulation compliance.
      4. Emergency Medical Services: Supports rapid trauma response.
    6. Mixed Outcomes: Despite a reported 11% decline in fatalities in 2024, accident deaths remain substantially high.

    What is the constitutional meaning of “complete justice”?

    1. Substantive Justice: Ensures outcomes aligned with fairness rather than rigid procedural compliance.
    2. Natural Justice: Requires adherence to principles of fair hearing, reasonableness, and equity.
    3. Constitutional Morality: Enables courts to protect constitutional values in emerging socio-legal contexts.
    4. Dynamic Interpretation: Adapts legal remedies to changing social realities where statutes lag behind societal needs.
    5. Institutional Trust: Strengthens public confidence by preventing denial of justice due to legal loopholes.
    6. Constitutional Intent: Reflects the framers’ objective of preserving justice even in legally exceptional situations.

    Can High Courts also exercise powers similar to Article 142?

    1. Constitutional Difference: High Courts do not possess powers identical to Article 142.
    2. Judicial Clarification: In Anil Kumar Jain v. Maya Jain, the Supreme Court held that Article 226 powers of High Courts are not co-extensive with Article 142 powers.
    3. Broader Writ Jurisdiction: High Courts may still deliver equitable relief under Article 226 for enforcement of fundamental and legal rights.
    4. Institutional Limitation: High Courts remain constrained by statutory frameworks to a greater extent than the Supreme Court.
    5. Functional Similarity: Both institutions pursue justice, but the Supreme Court possesses wider constitutional discretion.

    What judicial principles regulate the exercise of Article 142?

    1. Extraordinary Nature: Article 142 operates as an exceptional power and not an ordinary judicial mechanism.
    2. Judicial Restraint: Courts exercise caution to avoid institutional excess.
    3. Faith and Trust Principle: Judicial legitimacy depends upon restrained and principled use of extraordinary authority.
    4. Natural Justice Requirement: Fairness remains indispensable in all judicial interventions.
    5. Judicial Precedent: In Delhi Judicial Service Association v. State of Gujarat, the Court recognised Article 142 as distinct from ordinary law.
    6. Limited Exercise Principle: In Hitesh Bhatnagar v. Deepa Bhatnagar, the Court emphasised cautious application of extraordinary jurisdiction.

    Does Article 142 strengthen justice or undermine separation of powers?

    1. Judicial Activism: Supports proactive constitutional interpretation where governance gaps persist.
    2. Institutional Corrective: Responds to administrative inaction or legislative silence.
    3. Separation of Powers Concern: Critics argue frequent reliance on Article 142 risks judicial encroachment into executive and legislative domains.
    4. Procedural Bypass Criticism: Courts may bypass established statutory frameworks while granting remedies.
    5. Counterargument: Judicial intervention becomes necessary where evolving social issues outpace legislation.
    6. Illustration: Social Change: Courts have intervened in matters involving rights, dignity, and emerging social realities where existing laws proved inadequate.

    How has judicial precedent shaped the doctrine of complete justice?

    1. Equitable Justice Principle: In Canara Bank v. Debasis Das, the Court held that the Constitution seeks substantive justice beyond procedural rigidity.
    2. Legal Gap Filling: Article 142 addresses situations where legal systems fail to provide direct remedies.
    3. Precedent-Based Expansion: Judicial decisions have progressively broadened the operational meaning of “complete justice”.
    4. Balance with Constitutionalism: Courts continue to emphasise limits to avoid institutional imbalance.
    CaseContribution
    Delhi Judicial Service Association v. State of Gujarat (1991)Recognised independent scope of Article 142
    Canara Bank v. Debasis Das (2003)Reinforced substantive justice and natural justice
    Anil Kumar Jain v. Maya Jain (2009)Clarified High Courts cannot exercise Article 142 powers
    Hitesh Bhatnagar v. Deepa Bhatnagar (2011)Emphasised restraint in Article 142 use
    In Re: Phalodi Accident v. NHAI (2025)Linked safe highways with Article 21

    What are the criticisms of Article 142?

    1. Judicial Overreach: Expands the Court’s role beyond interpretation into policy-making, raising concerns of institutional overreach.
    2. Weakens Separation of Powers: Allows the judiciary to enter domains traditionally reserved for the Legislature or Executive.
    3. Bypassing Statutory Framework: Enables relief beyond existing laws, sometimes diluting Parliament-made procedures.
    4. Ambiguous Scope: The term “complete justice” lacks clear constitutional limits, creating scope for subjective interpretation.
    5. Democratic Accountability Concerns: Unelected judges making wide-ranging decisions may raise questions of democratic legitimacy.

    Conclusion

    Article 142 reflects the Constitution’s commitment to ensuring justice where statutory remedies prove inadequate. However, constitutional legitimacy requires a careful balance between judicial innovation and institutional restraint. The enduring challenge lies in preserving the Supreme Court’s role as the guardian of justice without unsettling the constitutional equilibrium among organs of the State.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2020] Judicial legislation is antithetical to the doctrine of separation of powers as envisaged in the Indian Constitution. In this context justify the filing of large number of public interest petitions praying for issuing guidelines to executive authorities

    Linkage: The PYQ directly tests the tension between judicial activism, judicial overreach, and separation of powers, the core debate surrounding Article 142. Article 142 embodies the same dilemma: Should courts intervene to ensure complete justice when governance fails, or does it amount to judicial legislation?