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Distribution: yearly

  • Hadean Protocrust

    Why in the News?

    A study from Macquarie University, Australia, suggests that plate tectonics may have started earlier than previously thought, with signs of it possibly existing in the Hadean protocrust even before the plates began to move.

    What is Hadean Protocrust?

    • The Hadean protocrust is the Earth’s first crust, formed within the first 200 million years of the planet’s creation.
    • During this time, the surface was mostly molten and constantly hit by space rocks, making it very hot and unstable.
    • Over time, parts of the molten surface began to cool and solidify, creating the first crust.

    Hadean Protocrust

    Back2Basics: Hadean Aeon

    • The Hadean Aeon is the earliest geological eon in Earth’s history, lasting from about 4.6 billion to 4 billion years ago.
    • The surface was incredibly hot and volcanic activity was widespread, often described as “hellish.”
    • It was followed by the Archean Eon (about 4 billion to 2.5 billion years ago), characterized by the formation of Earth’s first stable crust, the beginning of plate tectonics, and the earliest known forms of life.
    • As the surface cooled, the thick parts of the crust formed the first continents, which moved on the hot, semi-fluid layer beneath them called the asthenosphere.

    Key Findings of the Recent Study:

    • The researchers found that the chemical signatures linked to plate tectonics might have appeared earlier, even when the Earth’s crust was still forming in the Hadean protocrust.
    • This discovery suggests that early movements of the Earth’s crust, similar to plate tectonics, could have happened before plates began to move as we know them today.
    • The study used models and experiments to support these ideas, but further research is needed to confirm these findings.
    [UPSC 2013] Which of the following are responsible for bringing dynamic changes on the surface of the earth?

    1. Electromagnetic radiation 2. Geothermal energy 3. Gravitational force 4. Plate movements 5. Rotation of the earth 6. Revolution of the earth

    Which of the above are responsible for bringing dynamic changes on the surface of the earth?

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 2, 4 and 6 only (d) 2 and 4 only

     

  • First photographic record of Woolly Flying Squirrel captured in Himachal

    Why in the News?

    The Himachal Pradesh Forest Department’s wildlife wing has captured the first photographic evidence of the elusive Woolly Flying Squirrel in the Miyar Valley, Lahaul and Spiti district.

    First photographic record of Woolly Flying Squirrel captured in Himachal

    About the Woolly Flying Squirrel:

    • The Woolly Flying Squirrel, scientifically known as Eupetaurus cinereus, is one of the rarest and least known mammals in Asia.
    • It is endemic to the northwestern Himalayas, primarily found in northern Pakistan and northwestern India.
    • It prefers to live in dry conifer woodlands within a fragmented habitat in a thin elevational band.
    • This species was long believed to be extinct until it was rediscovered in 1994, nearly seventy years after its last recorded sighting.
    • It is unique due to its ability to glide, much like other flying squirrels, as it has elastic membranes that connect its fore and hind legs.

    Physical features:

    • Its body is covered with dense, straight, silky hairs, with the dorsal pelage appearing blue-gray, while the underside is pale gray.
    • The squirrel also has creamy white hairs on its throat and ears, and dense black fur on the soles of its feet, with pinkish brown toe pads that are naked.

    Conservation Status:

    • Listed as ‘Endangered’ on the IUCN Red List.
    • NOT explicitly mentioned under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.

    Significance of the Rediscovery:

    • Its confirmed existence adds to the state’s mammal checklist, offering hope for its continued survival in this remote part of the Himalayas.
    • This discovery is important from a scientific perspective, as it marks the first time the elusive species has been documented in India since its rediscovery in 1994.
    [UPSC 2012] Consider the following:

    1. Black-necked crane 2. Cheetah 3. Flying squirrel 4. Snow leopard

    Which of the above are naturally found in India?

    (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only (c) 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

     

  • Ottawa Convention

    Why in the News?

    NATO members including Poland, Finland, and the three Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania) have recently expressed intentions to withdraw from the Ottawa Convention.

    About the Ottawa Convention

    • The Ottawa Convention is an international treaty adopted in 1997 aimed at banning the use, production, stockpiling, and transfer of anti-personnel mines.
    • It is also known as the ‘Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Treaty.’
    • It specifically targets anti-personnel mines and EXCLUDES anti-vehicle mines, remote-controlled mines, and other types of munitions.
    • Signatories: 165 countries had joined by March 2025.
      • But major powers like the United States, China, Russia, India, and Israel have not signed.
    • Key Features: Signatories must destroy all stockpiled anti-personnel mines within 4 years of ratification, with some allowances for mines retained for training.

    Objectives of the Treaty

    • End Human Suffering: The primary goal is to end the human suffering caused by landmines.
    • Prevent Civilian Casualties: It seeks to prevent civilian casualties, especially long after conflicts have ended.
    • Rehabilitation and Restoration: The treaty also aims to assist in the rehabilitation of victims and the restoration of land previously mined for civilian use.

    Significance of the Convention

    • Victims’ Profile: According to the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), more than 80% of mine victims are civilians.
    • Convention Provisions: The convention includes provisions to assist victims, many of whom suffer permanent disabilities such as loss of limbs.
    [UPSC 2015] Which among the following are Nuclear Weapons States as recognized by the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of nuclear weapons, commonly known as Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)?

    1. China 2. France 3. India 4. Israel 5. Pakistan

    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1, 3, 4 and 5 only (c) 2, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

     

  • PM Modi at Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi

    Why in the News?

    PM Narendra Modi recently visited the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi temple in the historic city of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka.

    About the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi Tree

    • The Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi tree is considered the oldest living cultivated plant globally.
    • It is believed to have grown from a branch of the original Bodhi Vruksha in Bodhgaya under which Gautam Buddha attained enlightenment.
      • This branch was carried to Sri Lanka by Sanghamitra, eldest daughter of Emperor Ashoka and his first wife, Queen Devi.
      • The original tree under which Buddha meditated was reportedly destroyed, possibly by Ashoka’s wife Tishyarakshita in some legends.
    • Sanghamitra’s arrival in Sri Lanka with the tree is commemorated during the Uduvapa Poya, a festival observed annually on a full moon night in December.

    Legend of Sanghamitra’s Journey to Sri Lanka

    • Sanghamitra, originally named Ayapali, lived from 282 BC to 203 BC.
    • Following the Third Buddhist Council (held in 250 BC in Pataliputra) during Ashoka’s reign, it was decided to send missionaries to various regions, including Sri Lanka, to spread Buddhism.
    • The mission to Sri Lanka was led by Mahinda (Mahendra), Ashoka’s son, who converted King Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura to Buddhism.
    • After several royal ladies expressed interest in joining the Buddhist monastic order, Mahinda sent for his sister, Sanghamitra, to initiate them.
      • Both siblings lived in Anuradhapura for the rest of their lives.
    • She played a pivotal role in establishing the Order of Nuns (Bhikkhuni Sangha or Meheini Sasna) in Sri Lanka, which later spread to other Theravada Buddhist countries like Burma, China, and Thailand.
    [UPSC 2020] With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following statements:

    1. Sthaviravadins belong to Mahayana Buddhism. 2. Lokottaravadin sect was an offshoot of Mahasanghika sect of Buddhism. 3. The deification of Buddha by Mahasanghikas fostered the Mahayana Buddhism.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • PM inaugurates New Pamban Bridge 

    pamban bridge

    Why in the News?

    The newly constructed Pamban Bridge was inaugurated by PM Modi to replace a 110-year-old structure that connected Rameswaram to the Indian mainland.

    About the Pamban Bridge  

    • The Pamban Bridge, completed in 1914, was India’s first sea bridge, connecting Rameswaram on Pamban Island to the mainland.
    • It featured a double-leaf bascule span, allowing ships to pass through when the bridge lifted.
    • Standing 12.5 meters above sea level and spanning 145 piers, the bridge faced challenges, including cyclones and workforce issues.
    • The old bridge had become unsafe due to severe corrosion and structural weaknesses, highlighted by vibrations detected in 2022.
    • The new bridge features a vertical lift span that can raise in just 5 minutes, with a 22-meter clearance to allow larger vessels to pass, compared to the old bridge’s 1.5 meters.
    • Trains can now travel at speeds up to 75 km/h, a significant improvement from the previous 10 km/h limit.

  • CAPTCHA: a digital border between Humans and Bots

    Why in the News?

    This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in The Hindu.

    What is CAPTCHA?

    • CAPTCHA stands for Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers and Humans Apart.
    • It is a security measure used to differentiate humans from automated bots on websites.
    • It helps protect websites against spam and misuse by ensuring that the user performing actions is a human.
    • It was developed in the early 2000s by Luis von Ahn, Manuel Blum, Nicholas J. Hopper, and John Langford as a response to the proliferation of automated bots on the internet that created fake accounts, spammed websites, and stole data.
    • The first patent for CAPTCHA was filed in 2003.

    How Does CAPTCHA Work?

    • CAPTCHA presents tasks that are easy for humans to solve but hard for machines.
    • These tasks typically involve recognizing distorted text, images, or sounds that machines cannot interpret as reliably as humans.
    • It operates on the principle of the Turing test, designed by British mathematician Alan Turing in the 1950s.
      • This assesses a machine’s ability to exhibit human-like behaviour.
    • Over the years, CAPTCHA has evolved from simple text recognition to more complex tests:
    1. Image Recognition CAPTCHA: Users are asked to identify specific objects within images, such as cars, traffic lights, or storefronts.
    2. reCAPTCHA: Launched by Google in 2009, this system not only serves as a CAPTCHA but also helps digitize text from scanned documents. Users transcribe words that OCR software has been unable to recognize.
    3. Invisible reCAPTCHA: Introduced by Google in 2014, this version analyzes the user’s interaction with the website, such as mouse movements, to determine if they are human without needing them to complete a specific challenge.

    Limitations of CAPTCHA

    • Accessibility Issues: CAPTCHA can be challenging for people with disabilities, such as visual or hearing impairments.
    • User Inconvenience: The need to solve CAPTCHAs can be cumbersome, particularly on mobile devices, and may detract from user experience.
    • Advancing Bot Technology: As bots become more sophisticated with AI, they are increasingly capable of bypassing CAPTCHA systems, necessitating more complex solutions.
    [UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements: A digital signature is

    1. an electronic record that identifies the certifying authority issuing it

    2. used to serve as a proof of identity of an individual to access information or server on Internet.

    3. an electronic method of signing an electronic document and ensuring that the original content is unchanged

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Parliament passes Waqf (Amendment) Bill 2025 as Rajya Sabha grants approval

    Why in the News?

    After over 12 hours of debate and late-night voting, tensions rose over ministers taking a break and Congress faced criticism from INDI allies over supporting a government-backed Bill.

    What are the key provisions of the Waqf (Amendment) Bill?

    • Inclusion of Non-Muslim Members: The Bill makes it mandatory to have at least two non-Muslim members in both the Central Waqf Council and State Waqf Boards. Eg: A State Waqf Board in Uttar Pradesh will now include two non-Muslim members to ensure diversity and broader oversight.
    • Enhanced Transparency and Accountability: The bill mandates the digitization of all Waqf records on a centralized portal, ensuring real-time monitoring and preventing unauthorized transactions. Eg: Waqf institutions earning over ₹1 lakh annually must undergo audits by state-sponsored auditors.
    • Women Must Receive Inheritance Before Waqf: Before any property is dedicated as Waqf, women must receive their rightful share of inheritance under Islamic law. Eg: A man cannot donate ancestral property to a mosque as Waqf unless his daughters have first received their inheritance portion.
    • Waqf Boards Cannot Arbitrarily Declare: The amendment removes the Waqf Board’s earlier power to unilaterally declare any property as Waqf without due process. Eg: If there’s a dispute about a piece of land, the Waqf Board must now legally verify ownership instead of directly labeling it as Waqf land.
    • Restructuring of Waqf Tribunals: The structure of Waqf Tribunals is changed to include a district judge, a joint secretary-level government officer, and an expert in Muslim law. Appeals can go to the High Court within 90 days. Eg: A property dispute handled by the Waqf Tribunal in Delhi can now be appealed in the Delhi High Court within three months.

    Why did the Opposition criticize the Bill? 

    • Violation of Religious Freedom and Philanthropy Rights: The Opposition argued that banning non-Muslims from creating Waqf violates their freedom to donate or support causes of other religions. Eg: If a Hindu philanthropist wishes to donate land to a mosque for educational purposes, the law now prohibits it from being treated as Waqf.
    • Interference in Personal and Religious Affairs: Critics said the Bill marks excessive state interference in the religious practices of Muslims, especially by restructuring Waqf Tribunals and mandating non-Muslim representation in Waqf Boards. Eg: The inclusion of non-Muslims in bodies managing Islamic religious endowments is seen by some as an imposition on community autonomy.
    • Lack of Consultation and Political Targeting: Opposition parties claimed the Bill was introduced without adequate consultation with stakeholders, including Muslim scholars, religious leaders, or civil society groups. It was viewed as part of a broader political narrative targeting minorities. Eg: The sudden change in who can create Waqf (only Muslims with 5+ years of practice) was criticized as being done without meaningful dialogue with the affected community.

    How much property is currently recorded under Waqf in India?

    • Registered properties: As of March 2025, Waqf boards in India manage approximately 8.72 lakh (872,000) registered properties, encompassing over 38 lakh (3.8 million) acres of land. Eg: Uttar Pradesh: Approximately 2.1 lakh Waqf properties,  West Bengal: Around 78,000 properties and Kerala: About 55,000 properties.
    • Spread Across Prime Urban and Rural Areas: Waqf land is spread across prime locations in cities and fertile lands in villages, often facing issues of encroachment and poor management. Eg: In Delhi and Mumbai, many Waqf lands are located in commercial hubs, but are underutilized or illegally occupied.

    Who can donate to Waqf under the new law?

    Under the Waqf (Amendment) Bill, 2025, only practicing Muslims who have been adhering to their faith for at least five years are eligible to donate property as Waqf. This provision aims to ensure that donations are genuine and voluntary, reinstating a pre-2013 rule

    How has this changed from the 2013 Waqf Act?

    Aspect Waqf Act, 2013 Waqf (Amendment) Bill, 2025
    Who can create Waqf Any person (including non-Muslims) could create a Waqf Only practicing Muslims (for at least 5 years) can create Waqf
    Inclusion of non-Muslims in Waqf Boards Only Muslims were members of Waqf Boards and the Central Waqf Council At least 2 non-Muslim members must be included in both Boards and Council
    Waqf Board’s power to declare property Waqf Boards could unilaterally declare any property as Waqf (Section 40) This power is removed; Boards cannot declare any property Waqf without due process
    Women’s inheritance rights in family Waqf Not clearly defined or enforced Ensures women receive inheritance before family property is converted into Waqf
    Composition of Waqf Tribunals Tribunals had members appointed by the state, often lacking legal or religious expertise Must include a district judge, joint secretary-level officer, and Muslim law expert
    Appeal Mechanism Appeals were limited and unclear in some cases Clear provision for appeal to the High Court within 90 days

    Way forward:

    • Promote Inclusive Dialogue and Trust-building: Establish structured consultations with religious leaders, civil society, and legal experts to address concerns and foster transparency.
    • Strengthen Implementation with Oversight: Ensure effective digitization, fair dispute resolution, and regular audits through independent oversight bodies to prevent misuse and encroachment.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2019] What are the challenges to our cultural practices in the name of secularism.

    Linkage: Potential conflicts between secular principles and the freedom to practice cultural and religious traditions in India.

  • A people still waiting to move out of the margins

    Why in the News?

    International Transgender Day of Visibility, held on March 31, brings attention to the problems transgender people still face, like unfair treatment in schools, jobs, and healthcare.

    What challenges do transgender individuals face despite the 2019 Transgender Rights Act?

    • Delays in Legal Recognition and ID Issuance: The certification process for transgender identity is slow and bureaucratic. e.g. As of December 2023, over 3,200 applications on the National Portal were pending beyond the 30-day limit.
    • Lack of Self-Determination in Identity Recognition: The Act mandates a certification process rather than allowing self-identification, unlike global best practices. e.g. Transgender persons must get approval from a district magistrate instead of simply self-declaring their identity.
    • Poor Implementation of Welfare Schemes: Many government schemes meant for transgender individuals are poorly implemented or inaccessible. e.g. In Delhi, out of about 4,200 transgender people (2011 Census), only 23 ID cards were issued by April 2022.
    • No Provisions for Protection from Family Rejection or Police Harassment: The Act does not address key social challenges like violence, rejection, or abuse. e.g. Transgender persons facing domestic violence or harassment by authorities have little legal recourse under the Act.
    • Continued Social Exclusion and Stigma: Despite legal recognition, social acceptance remains low, leading to discrimination in daily life. e.g. Many transgender individuals are still denied housing, employment, and public services due to prejudice.

    Why does economic exclusion persist for the transgender community in India?

    • Hiring Discrimination and Workplace Bias: Transgender individuals face exclusion during recruitment and hostility at work. e.g. A 2022 study reported a 48% unemployment rate among transgender people, far higher than the national average of 7-8%.
    • Limited Industry Adoption of Inclusive Policies: Only a few companies have adopted transgender-inclusive hiring and workplace practices. e.g. while Tata Steel hired over 100 transgender employees, such initiatives are not widely adopted across industries.
    • Barriers to Financial Inclusion: Many transgender individuals face hurdles in opening bank accounts or accessing credit. e.g. Despite a 2024 clarification allowing LGBTQ+ individuals to open joint bank accounts, broader financial exclusion still persists.

    How do barriers in education and healthcare impact transgender inclusion?

    • High Dropout Rates Due to Bullying and Harassment: Discrimination in schools leads to low retention and poor educational outcomes. e.g. In Kerala, 58% of transgender students dropped out due to bullying and lack of support.
    • Low Literacy Levels Limit Opportunities: Inadequate access to quality education restricts upward mobility. e.g. The 2011 Census reported a transgender literacy rate of 56.1%, compared to the national average of 74.04%.
    • Lack of Gender-Sensitive Infrastructure in Schools and Colleges: The absence of gender-neutral toilets and inclusive curricula creates an unwelcoming environment. e.g. Few institutions offer facilities like separate hostel rooms or transgender cells; Maharashtra is among the few states addressing this.
    • Denial of Basic Healthcare Services: Transgender individuals are often refused treatment or face discrimination in hospitals. e.g. A National Legal Services Authority (NALSA) survey found that 27% were denied healthcare due to their gender identity.
    • Limited Access to Gender-Affirming Treatments: High costs and lack of insurance make crucial medical procedures unaffordable. e.g. Gender-affirming surgeries cost between ₹2 lakh to ₹5 lakh, and despite the launch of Ayushman Bharat TG Plus, implementation is patchy.

    Which state-level initiatives support transgender students in education?

    • Maharashtra – Transgender Cells in Colleges: The state has established dedicated support cells in colleges to address the needs of transgender students. e.g. These cells help create a more inclusive academic environment by offering counseling and redressal mechanisms.
    • Kerala – Reservation and Hostel Facilities: Kerala has introduced reserved seats for transgender students in universities and provided separate hostel facilities. e.g. The University of Kerala reserves seats for transgender individuals in postgraduate courses and provides dedicated accommodations.
    • Tamil Nadu – Scholarships and Welfare Schemes: Tamil Nadu provides scholarships and educational assistance specifically for transgender students. e.g. The Third Gender Welfare Board supports education, skill training, and financial aid for transgender persons.

    What measures can ensure genuine inclusion beyond symbolic visibility days?

    • Enforce Anti-Discrimination Laws and Policies: Strong legal enforcement is needed to protect transgender rights in workplaces, schools, and public spaces. e.g. Implementing mandatory anti-discrimination clauses in employment policies can reduce workplace bias and ensure accountability.
    • Promote Gender Sensitisation in Institutions: Regular awareness and training programs in schools, universities, and offices can change attitudes. e.g. Including transgender awareness in school curricula and conducting sensitisation workshops in workplaces helps reduce stigma and foster inclusion.
    • Support Transgender Economic Empowerment: Inclusive hiring, access to credit, and government-backed entrepreneurship programs can boost livelihoods. e.g. Initiatives like targeted financial schemes and diversity hiring programs can help transgender entrepreneurs start businesses and gain financial independence.

     

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2024] Despite comprehensive policies for equity and social justice, underprivileged sections are not yet getting the full benefits of affirmative action envisaged by the Constitution. Comment.

    Linkage: Lack of progress for underprivileged sections despite policy efforts.

  • Heard and McDonald Islands

    Why in the News?

    Donald Trump imposed a 10% tariff on imports from the Heard and McDonald Islands, despite no human presence there for nearly a decade.

    About the Heard and McDonald Islands

    • The Heard and McDonald Islands are located in the Southern Ocean, approximately 4,100 km south-west of Perth, Australia, and 1,600 km to the north of the Antarctic coast.
    • The islands are unincorporated external territories of Australia, meaning they are not part of any Australian state but are directly administered by the Australian government.
    • The islands are home to seals, penguins, and albatrosses, and serve as crucial breeding grounds for these species.
    • The islands have been designated as UNESCO World Heritage Sites due to their ecological significance, particularly their rich biodiversity.
    • Heard Island:
      • Heard Island spans an area of approximately 368 square kilometers.
      • The island’s highest point is Mawson Peak, an active volcano standing 2,745 meters (9,006 feet) above sea level.
      • Mawson Peak is one of the most active volcanoes in the southern hemisphere, with eruptions as recent as 2016.
    • McDonald Islands:
      • It is much smaller, covering only 2.5 square kilometers.
      • Geological Nature: These islands are volcanic and part of the same volcanic chain as Heard Island.
      • Climate
      • Both islands experience an extremely cold subantarctic climate, with heavy winds, snow, and ice for much of the year.
      • Temperatures rarely exceed 5°C (41°F) even in summer.

    Strategic Significance

    • The islands are strategically located between Australia and Antarctica, important for monitoring the Southern Ocean, vital for global biodiversity and climate studies.
    • They play a key role in scientific research, particularly in volcanology, glaciology, and climate change, with Australia operating a research station on Heard Island.
    • The islands are protected under the Antarctic Treaty System, ensuring no military activity or commercial exploitation in the region.
    • Rich in marine resources, the surrounding waters are also safeguarded to prevent overfishing and environmental harm.
    • Their geopolitical importance grows as international competition and territorial claims around Antarctica and the Southern Ocean increase.

  • Exercise INDRA 2025

    Why in the News?

    The bilateral naval exercise INDRA 2025 between the Indian and Russian navies was held from 28 March to 02 April 2025.

    About Exercise INDRA

    • INDRA is a biennial joint military exercise that began in 2003.
    • Over time, INDRA transformed into a tri-service exercise involving Army, Navy, and Air Force, making it more comprehensive and multifaceted.
    • Recent Editions of INDRA:
      • 2021 (12th Edition): Held in Volgograd, Russia; Focused on counter-terrorism operations and enhancing operational synergy.
      • 2023 (13th Edition): Conducted in the Bay of Bengal, India; Involved naval forces from both countries, enhancing maritime cooperation and joint operations.
      • 2025 (14th Edition): It is being conducted in two phases: Harbour phase at Chennai and Sea phase in the Bay of Bengal.

    Strategic Importance 

    • The exercise reinforced jointmanship between the Indian and Russian forces, strengthening their ability to collaborate in maritime security operations.
    • It highlighted the shared commitment to upholding maritime order and promoting global peace and stability.
    • Best practices were exchanged, fostering a deeper understanding of each other’s operational doctrines and enhancing the capacity to respond effectively to contemporary maritime security challenges.