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Distribution: yearly

  • International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for FAO

    Why in the News?

    India has expressed serious concerns over proposed changes to the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA)—popularly known as the Plant Treaty.

    About the Plant Treaty, 2001:

    • Adoption: It was adopted by the FAO on 3rd November 2001 and came into force in 2004.
    • Purpose: It governs the Multilateral System (MLS) for the access and benefit-sharing of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (PGRFA).
    • Key Features:
      • Coverage of Crops: The MLS currently includes 64 essential food crops and forages listed in Annex I, which together meet around 80% of the world’s plant-based food needs.
      • Access Mechanism: Access to these genetic materials is provided for research, breeding, and training purposes through a Standard Material Transfer Agreement (SMTA).
      • Benefit-Sharing Approach: The Treaty incorporates monetary and non-monetary benefit-sharing mechanisms, with a focus on supporting biodiversity in developing countries.
      • IP Restrictions: It prohibits any intellectual property claims over the raw genetic materials accessed under the system.
      • Recognition of Farmers’ Rights: It affirms farmers’ rights, such as the protection of traditional knowledge, equitable benefit-sharing, and participation in national decisions about PGRFA use and conservation.
    • India’s Participation: India is a signatory and active participant and implements the Treaty alongside domestic legislation like the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights (PPV&FR) Act, 2001.

    Proposed Amendments:

    • Objective: The upcoming proposal aims to expand the scope of the MLS to include all PGRFA, not just those in Annex I.
    • New Inclusions: The expansion would bring in indigenous varieties, non-commercial crops, and community-protected heirloom seeds under the MLS framework.
    • Impact on India’s Obligations: If passed, the amendment would mandate countries like India to share all plant germplasm through the existing SMTA process.
    • No Change in Benefit Terms: The amendment retains current benefit-sharing mechanisms, which critics argue are often non-monetary or merely symbolic.
    • Concerns over IP Rights: The broadened scope may lead to intellectual property loopholes if traditional seeds are repackaged or genetically altered.
    • Allegations of Biopiracy: Critics argue the proposal enables “backdoor biopiracy”, especially of the Global South’s rich seed diversity.

    India’s Concerns:

    • Loss of Seed Sovereignty: India fears it will lose discretion over which seeds to share, weakening its ability to protect unique plant biodiversity.
    • Undermining of Farmers’ Rights: The proposal might override the rights granted to farmers under the Plant Treaty and India’s PPV&FR Act, which view them as custodians of seed heritage.
    • Erosion of National Authority: The expansion could violate Articles 10 and 11 of the Treaty, which grant countries sovereign control over their genetic resources.
    • Violation of Federal Principles: The lack of consultation with States is seen as a breach of India’s federal structure, as agriculture is a State subject under Schedule VII of the Constitution.
    • Marginalization of Biodiversity Boards: The role of State Biodiversity Boards may be diminished, despite their importance in regulating local germplasm and community rights.
    • Lack of Equitable Returns: India argues that the global system offers little real benefit, raising doubts about fairness and justice in benefit-sharing.
    [UPSC 2014] Consider the following international agreements:

    1. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.

    2. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification.

    3. The World Heritage Convention. Which of the above has/have a bearing on the biodiversity?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • How Heat led to Protocells formation on Earth?

    Why in the News?

    A new Nature Physics study suggests that warm volcanic rock surfaces may have concentrated organic molecules in watery cracks, triggering life-like chemistry—offering a clue to how protocells formed without membranes before life began.

    What are Protocells?

    • Overview: Protocells are primitive, cell-like bubbles believed to be early precursors of real biological cells. They were not fully alive but provided a space for early chemical interactions.
    • Lack of Complexity: These structures lacked complex parts like organelles or DNA systems but could hold important molecules like RNA and amino acids together.
    • Membrane Role: Protocells often formed simple membranes or boundaries, which allowed molecules to stay enclosed and interact more easily—helping early reactions like protein synthesis happen.
    • Importance: Although not living, they offered a model of how basic chemistry could evolve into biology, bridging the gap between non-living and living systems.

    History of Formation of Protocells:

    • Early Earth Conditions: Over 3.5 billion years ago, Earth’s surface had warm water pools and volcanic cracks filled with organic molecules made by natural processes like lightning.
    • Compartmentalization: The first step toward life was concentrating useful molecules in one place, so they could start reacting—this led to the idea of bubble-like protocells.
    • Old Theories: In the 1920s, Oparin and Haldane proposed that life began in a “primordial soup” with spontaneous chemical reactions in early Earth’s oceans.
    • Modern Insights: Newer research suggests cracks in volcanic rock or hydrothermal vents created temperature gradients and water flows that helped form protocells—no complex membranes were needed.

    Key Findings in the 2025 Study:

    • Lab Setup: Scientists created a 170-micrometre chamber with a warm top (40°C) and cool bottom (27°C), simulating early Earth rock cracks.
    • DNA Test: They added DNA and a protein-making kit (PURExpress). Only in the warm-cool chamber did the DNA make green fluorescent protein (GFP), showing real protein synthesis.
    • Molecule Gathering: Essential items like DNA, magnesium, and phosphate ions gathered more at the bottom—up to 70 times more concentrated than at the top.
    • Cell-Like Behavior: Even without a membrane, the system kept useful molecules inside while letting waste escape, mimicking real cell selectivity.
    • Big Implication: This experiment supports the idea that life could start in simple natural environments using just heat, flow, and basic chemicals—long before full cells appeared.
    [UPSC 2018] Consider the following statements:

    1. The Earth’s magnetic field has reversed every few hundred thousand years.

    2. When the Earth was created more than 4000 million years ago, there was 54% oxygen and no carbon dioxide.

    3. When living organisms originated, they modified the early atmosphere of the Earth. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only * (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • India is 4th most Equal Society: World Bank

    Why in the News?

    As of 2025, India ranks as the world’s fourth most equal country in terms of income distribution, according to the World Bank’s Spring 2025 Poverty and Equity Brief.

    India is 4th most Equal Society: World Bank

    About the World Bank’s Spring 2025 Poverty and Equity Brief:

    • What It Is: The Poverty and Equity Brief is a biannual publication by the World Bank’s Poverty and Equity Global Practice Group.
    • Data Coverage: It includes country-level statistics on poverty, inequality, and shared prosperity using household surveys, national datasets, and income tracking.
    • Comparative Perspective: The brief allows comparison across income groups and regions, helping track Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
    • Spring 2025 Focus: This edition emphasizes post-pandemic recovery, distributional equity, and the effectiveness of welfare policies in developing nations.

    Key Parameters Involved:

    • Gini Index: It measures how equally income is distributed.
      • Score Range: 1 = complete equality; 100 = complete inequality.
      • India’s Score: 25.5 in 2022–23, showing strong income equality.
    • International Poverty Lines:
      • $2.15/day (2017 PPP): Global standard for extreme poverty.
      • $3.00/day: Threshold for lower-middle-income countries like India.
    • Poverty Headcount Ratio: Reflects how many people live below the poverty line.
      • India’s Status: 2.3% below $2.15/day and 5.3% below $3/day in 2022–23.
    • Shared Prosperity Premium:
      • Measures if the bottom 40% of the population are doing better or worse than average.
      • High premium means inclusive growth.

    Key Highlights from the Spring 2025 Report:

    • India’s Gini Score: Among Most Equal
      • With a score of 25.5, India is the 4th most equal country, after Slovak Republic (24.1), Slovenia (24.3), and Belarus (24.4).
      • India outperforms China (35.7) and all G7 and G20 nations.
      • Improved from 28.8 in 2011, showing a steady decline in inequality.
    • Major Poverty Reduction Milestone
      • Between 2011 and 2023, 171 million people moved out of extreme poverty.
      • Share of population under $2.15/day fell from 16.2% to 2.3%.
      • Share under $3/day fell to 5.3%, marking a significant decline.
    [UPSC 2007] Consider the following statements:

    1. The repo rate is the rate at which other banks borrow from the Reserve Bank of India. 2. A value of 1 for Gini Coefficient in a country implies that there is perfectly equal income for everyone in its population.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

  • In news: Seine River

    Why in the News?

    French authorities have opened up the Seine River to public swimming for the very first time since 1923.

    In news: Seine River

    About the Seine River:

    • Overview: it is a major waterway in northern France, flowing through some of the country’s most important cultural and economic regions.
    • Length and Rank: It is approximately 777 km(483 miles) long, making it the second-longest river in France after the Loire.
    • Source and Elevation: It originates from the Langres Plateau in the Burgundy region, near the town of Source-Seine, at an elevation of about 444–471 meters above sea level.
    • Course Through France: It flows northwest, passing through regions such as Burgundy, Champagne, and Île-de-France, and cities like Troyes, Melun, Corbeil, and Paris.
    • Path Through Paris: In Paris, the Seine winds through the city center for about 13 kilometers, forming the famous islands Île de la Cité and Île Saint-Louis.
    • Tributaries: It is joined by several important tributaries, including the Marne, Yonne, Aube, and Oise rivers.
    • Drainage Basin and Rainfall: Its drainage basin spans 76,000–79,000 square kilometers, receiving moderate rainfall of 650–750 mm annually, and covering much of northern France.
    • Mouth and Termination: The river empties into the English Channel between Le Havre and Honfleur, on the Normandy coast.
    • Economic Role: The Seine supports commercial navigation and shipping, especially through the ports of Rouen and Le Havre, and provides about 50% of Paris’s drinking water.
    [UPSC 2020] Consider the following pairs: River Flows into

    1. Mekong Andaman Sea 2. Thames Irish Sea 3. Volga Caspian Sea 4. Zambezi Indian Ocean Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 3 and 4 only* (d) 1, 2 and 4 only

     

  • ‘3 by 35’ Initiative by WHO

    Why in the News?

    The World Health Organisation (WHO) has launched the “3 by 35” initiative, urging countries to raise taxes on tobacco, alcohol, and sugary drinks by at least 50% by 2035 to fight rising chronic diseases.

    About the ‘3 by 35’ Initiative:

    • Launch and Objective: The ‘3 by 35’ initiative was launched by WHO in 2024 urging countries to raise real prices of tobacco, alcohol, and sugary drinks by at least 50% by 2035 through health taxes.
    • Public Health Goal: The primary aim is to reduce non-communicable diseases (NCDs) like cancer, heart disease, and diabetes, which currently cause over 75% of global deaths.
    • Impact Projection: According to WHO estimates, a 50% price increase in harmful products could prevent 50 million premature deaths over the next 50 years.
    • Revenue Mobilization Target: The initiative aims to help countries generate $1 trillion in public revenue over the next decade to strengthen national health systems and fund universal health coverage (UHC).
    • Global Technical Support: A global alliance of experts and institutions backs the initiative by offering policy advice, real-world case studies, and implementation support.

    Key Features:

    • Focus on Health Taxes: Promotes the use of excise taxes to increase the prices of tobacco, alcohol, and sugary beverages, discouraging harmful consumption and improving population-level health.
    • Evidence-Based Tools: Provides technical guidance, economic models, and case studies to support country-specific reforms in taxation policy.
    • Alignment with UHC: Positions health taxes as sustainable revenue sources for public health financing, especially targeting low- and middle-income countries.
    • Equity-Oriented Design: Targets products disproportionately consumed by vulnerable groups, making the initiative also a tool for social equity and justice.
    [UPSC 2013] Consider the following statements:

    1. India ranks first in the world in fruit production. 2. India ranks second in the world in the export of tobacco. Which of these statements is/are correct?”

    Options: (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2*

     

  • Conflict in Middle East: As world watches oil, why India must watch its fertiliser supply 

    Why in the News?

    The Iran-Israel conflict has drawn global attention for its impact on oil prices, but a less visible and equally serious issue is emerging in fertiliser supply, which poses a significant risk to farming and food security in India.

    What are the fertiliser security risks for India amid geopolitical conflicts?

    • Disruption of Import Routes: India relies heavily on fertiliser imports from Gulf countries like Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and Oman. These imports pass through the Strait of Hormuz, a key shipping route vulnerable to blockades during conflicts like the Iran-Israel standoff. Eg: A naval blockade in the Strait could delay shipments of urea and DAP, affecting timely supply during sowing seasons.
    • Volatile Global Prices: Geopolitical tensions raise the prices of natural gas (used to produce urea) and finished fertilisers. Eg: A conflict-induced surge in natural gas prices increases the cost of domestic urea production, straining India’s fertiliser subsidy bill.
    • Dependence on Conflict Zones: India imports 100% of MOP (Muriate of Potash), including from Belarus and Israel, both affected by global instability. Eg: Escalation in the Iran-Israel conflict can disrupt MOP imports, impacting crops like sugarcane and cotton that need potash-based fertilisers.

    What lessons from the Russia-Ukraine crisis remain unaddressed?

    • Lack of Strategic Buffer Stocks: Despite 2022 supply disruptions, India still lacks a fertiliser buffer stock policy or minimum stocking norms for critical imports like DAP and MOP. Eg: During peak sowing seasons (like Kharif), 30–45 days of operational stock is inadequate to absorb external shocks.
    • Failure to Diversify Import Sources Meaningfully: While India talks of diversification, it continues to rely heavily on Gulf countries and politically unstable regions. Eg: After disruptions in nitrogen and potash from Russia and Belarus, the current dependence on Israel and Jordan for DAP remains high, risking repetition.
    • Reactive Rather than Proactive Policymaking: The policy response has focused more on short-term procurement than long-term resilience building through joint ventures, domestic innovation, or alternative fertilisers. Eg: No significant scaling of nano, bio or organic fertilisers occurred post-2022, leaving India stuck with high subsidy bills for synthetic inputs.

    Why should fertilisers be part of India’s national security planning?

    • Critical for Food Security: Fertilisers are essential for sustaining agricultural output in an input-intensive farming system. Eg: Disruptions in urea or DAP supply during sowing seasons can directly impact crop yields and food availability.
    • Vulnerability to Geopolitical Shocks: Heavy reliance on imports from unstable regions exposes India to external risks.  
    • Impact on Economic and Rural Stability: Fertiliser shortages or price hikes raise subsidy burdens and can lead to rural distress.  

    What are the steps taken by the Indian government?

    • Boosting Domestic Production: Reviving closed urea plants (e.g., Gorakhpur, Sindri, Talcher) to achieve 90% urea self-sufficiency by 2025. Focus on reducing import dependency for nitrogen-based fertilisers.
    • Diversifying Import Sources: Forming long-term agreements and joint ventures with countries like Morocco (for phosphates) and Canada (for potash) to ensure a stable supply. Exploring partnerships beyond the Middle East to reduce geopolitical risk.
    • Subsidy and Distribution Reforms: Implementing the Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) system for fertiliser subsidies to ensure transparency. Promoting alternative fertilisers like Nano Urea and encouraging balanced nutrient usage.

    How can India build resilience in fertiliser supply chains? (Way forward)

    • Develop Strategic Fertiliser Reserves: Establish buffer stocks of key fertilisers like urea, DAP, and MOP, especially for critical sowing seasons (e.g., Kharif and Rabi) to cushion against global disruptions.
    • Expand and Diversify Import Partnerships: Forge long-term agreements and joint ventures with stable countries (e.g., Morocco, Canada, Jordan) and explore alternative shipping routes to reduce overdependence on the Middle East and de-risk supply chains.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2017] The question of India’s Energy Security constitutes the most important part of India’s economic progress. Analyze India’s energy policy cooperation with West Asian Countries.

    Linkage: The article explicitly states that India relies heavily on Gulf countries for “natural gas — the key raw material used to produce” urea, a vital fertilizer. The ongoing conflict threatens “ammonia, urea, DAP, and liquified natural gas (LNG) — all vital for agriculture”. This PYQ precisely captures the energy dimension of India’s dependency on the Middle East, which is a critical underlying factor contributing to the fertilizer crisis.

  • WTO Agreement on Safeguards (AoS)

    Why in the News?

    Invoking the Agreement on Safeguards (AoS), India has notified the WTO of its plan to impose $724 million in retaliatory tariffs on the U.S. for breaching trade commitments through unilateral auto import duties.

    What is the Agreement on Safeguards (AoS)?

    • Overview: It is a World Trade Organization (WTO) treaty that allows countries to apply temporary trade barriers—called safeguard measures—when a domestic industry is harmed by a surge in imports.
    • Purpose in Practice: The agreement maintains global trade discipline, offering legal protection tools but with checks to avoid abuse.
    • Conditions for Use: Safeguards can only be used when there is clear evidence of serious injury or threat to domestic producers due to increased imports.
    • Rules-Based System: The agreement ensures safeguard actions are transparent, time-bound, and non-discriminatory, preventing misuse for permanent protectionism.
    • Key Rules:
      • Article 12.3: Before acting, a country must notify and consult with other WTO members who may be affected by the safeguard.
      • Article 8: If consultation fails, the affected country can retaliate by suspending trade benefits equal to the loss it suffered.
      • Ban on Informal Restrictions: AoS strictly prohibits voluntary export restraints or informal quotas that evade WTO rules, ensuring fairness.

    India’s Use of the AoS – The 2025 U.S. Tariff Case:

    • Trigger: The U.S. had imposed 25% tariffs on Indian-origin vehicles and parts in March 2025, which India claims are safeguard measures disguised as unilateral tariffs.
    • Violation of Rules: India alleges that the U.S. did not follow Article 12.3 (mandatory consultations) and thus violated both AoS and GATT 1994 rules.
    • Impact on Indian Exports: India estimates that $2.89 billion worth of exports have been affected and that the U.S. collected nearly $723.75 million in duties, matching India’s proposed retaliation.
    • India’s Justification: India asserts that this move is legal under WTO rules, not protectionist, and aims to defend its export interests while continuing trade talks with the U.S.

    India’s Changing Role in WTO Safeguard Policy:

    • Early Strategy (1995–2010): India was initially cautious at the WTO, accepting tough terms under TRIPS, GATS, and AoA, and rarely used legal tools like retaliation, focusing more on diplomatic solutions.
    • Recent Assertiveness (Post-2010): India now actively invokes WTO rules like AoS to protect its interests and has won key disputes—such as:
      • The solar panel case against the U.S.
      • Legal challenges to EU’s export restrictions on food.
    • Global Leadership Role: India has taken the lead among developing countries to protect food security rights and push for fairer global trade terms, especially at Bali (2013) and Nairobi (2015) WTO summits.

    Back2Basics: 

    TRIPS (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights)

    • WTO agreement (1995) setting minimum standards for IPR protection (patents, copyrights, etc.).
    • Enforced 20-year patent protection; India amended its Patent Act in 2005 to comply.
    • Allows compulsory licensing in emergencies (e.g., for medicines).

    GATS (General Agreement on Trade in Services)

    • WTO treaty covering international trade in services like IT, banking, and tourism.
    • Operates through 4 Modes of Supply:
      1. Mode 1 – Cross-border supply (e.g., online consulting)
      2. Mode 2 – Consumption abroad (e.g., medical tourism)
      3. Mode 3 – Commercial presence (e.g., foreign bank branch in India)
      4. Mode 4 – Movement of natural persons (e.g., Indian professionals working overseas)
    • India strongly supports Mode 4 for its skilled labour force.

     

    [UPSC 2015] The terms ‘Agreement on Agriculture’, ‘Agreement on the application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures’ and ‘Peace Clause’ appear in the news frequently in the context of the affairs of the:

    Options: (a) Food and Agricultural Organization (b) United Nations Framework Conference on Climate Change (c) World Trade Organization* (d) United Nations Environment Programme

     

  • CJI assures ‘complete transparency’ in Collegium System

    Why in the News?

    Recently, CJI B.R. Gavai affirmed that the collegium system will ensure merit, transparency, and inclusive representation, and will not be swayed by external pressures.

    What is the Collegium System?

    • About: The Collegium System is the process by which judges are appointed and transferred in the Supreme Court and High Courts of India.
    • Origin: It was developed by the Supreme Court itself and is not mentioned in the Constitution.
    • Purpose: It aims to ensure judicial independence by minimizing the role of the executive in judicial appointments.
    • Basis for Appointments:
      • Supreme Court Judges: Under Article 124, the President appoints judges after consulting relevant judges from the Supreme Court and High Courts.
      • High Court Judges: Under Article 217, appointments are made by the President after consulting the Chief Justice of India, Governor of the State, and Chief Justice of the High Court concerned.
    • Structure of the Collegium:
      • Supreme Court Collegium: It consists of 5 judges — the Chief Justice of India (CJI) and the four senior-most judges of the Supreme Court.
      • High Court Collegium: It comprises the Chief Justice of the High Court and the two senior-most judges of that High Court.

    Qualifications for SC Judges:

    • Citizenship: Must be an Indian citizen.
    • Judicial Experience: At least 5 years as a High Court judge or 10 years as an advocate in one or more High Courts.
    • Alternative Route: Can also be a distinguished jurist, in the President’s opinion.

    Qualifications for HC Judges:

    • Experience: Must have held a judicial office for 10 years or practiced as an advocate for 10 years in a High Court.
    • Bar Enrollment: Must be enrolled with the Bar Council of India.

    Evolution of the Collegium System:

    • First Judges Case (1981): The Supreme Court ruled that the executive had primacy in appointments, and the CJI’s opinion was not binding.
    • Second Judges Case (1993): The Court reinterpreted “consultation” to mean “concurrence”, giving primacy to the judiciary and formally creating the Collegium System.
    • Third Judges Case (1998): On Presidential Reference, the Collegium was expanded to five members — the CJI + 4 senior-most judges.

    How does it Work?

    • Appointment of Chief Justice of India (CJI): The outgoing CJI recommends the next CJI, based on seniority. The Law Minister forwards it to the PM, who advises the President.
    • Appointment of Other SC Judges: The CJI initiates the proposal after consulting Collegium members and the senior-most judge from the concerned High Court.
    • Appointment of High Court Judges: Initiated by the High Court Chief Justice, approved by the High Court Collegium, and forwarded via the state government to the Union Law Ministry.
    [UPSC 2012] What is the provision to safeguard the autonomy of the Supreme Court of India?

    1. While appointing the Supreme Court Judges, the President of India has to consult the Chief Justice of India.

    2. The Supreme Court Judges can be removed by the Chief Justice of India only.

    3. The salaries of the Judges are charged on the Consolidated Fund of India to which the legislature does not have to vote.

    4. All appointments of officers and staff of the Supreme Court of India are made by the Government only after consulting the Chief Justice of India.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 3 only * (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

     

  • Oil Exploration in the Andaman Basin

    Why in the News?

    The Union Minister for Petroleum has revealed that India is on the brink of a Guyana-like oil discovery in the Andaman Sea

    Do you know?

    Guyana, now a major oil-producing nation, has seen 47% average real GDP growth since 2022, driven by offshore oil.

     

    Oil Exploration in the Andaman Basin

    About the Oil Exploration in Andaman Basin:

    • Location & Scale: It lies in the southeastern Bay of Bengal and covers about 2.25 lakh sq. km, making it one of India’s largest underexplored offshore sedimentary basins.
    • Geological Importance: It shares tectonic and structural similarities with nearby hydrocarbon-rich basins in North Sumatra (Indonesia) and Irrawaddy-Margui (Myanmar).
    • Historical Restrictions: The area was long considered a ‘No-Go’ zone due to environmental and strategic reasons, preventing oil exploration until recently.
    • Scientific Breakthrough: In 2020, Oil India Ltd launched the Deep Andaman Offshore Survey, which discovered mud volcanoes and Baratang formations — signs of hydrocarbon activity.
    • Data Entry into National Records: The survey findings were added to the National Data Repository (NDR) in 2023, making crucial geological data available to investors.
    • Rising Strategic Interest: The basin is now seen as vital for India’s energy security due to its deepwater potential and ability to cut down oil imports.
    • Recent Collaborations: Companies like ONGC partnered with TotalEnergies (France) in 2023 to explore deepwater blocks in the basin.

    Policy Shift that Enabled Exploration:

    • Introduction of HELP: The Hydrocarbon Exploration and Licensing Policy (HELP) was introduced in 2016, replacing the older NELP system with a more industry-friendly framework.
    • Licensing Reform: HELP provides a single license for all hydrocarbons — oil, gas, shale, and coal bed methane — removing the need for separate permits.
    • Revenue Sharing System: Instead of auditing costs, the government now receives a fixed share of revenue, simplifying financial compliance and reducing disputes.
    • OALP and Investor Flexibility: The Open Acreage Licensing Policy (OALP) allows companies to bid for exploration blocks of their own choosing throughout the year, encouraging customized investment.
    • Use of Geological Data: The National Data Repository (NDR) helps companies make informed decisions using extensive geological and seismic information.
    • Market Freedom: Under HELP, companies have the freedom to price and market their oil and gas, which boosts competitiveness and attracts private players.
    • Royalty Incentives: A graded royalty system reduces rates for deepwater and ultra-deepwater blocks, offsetting high-risk exploration like in the Andaman.
    [UPSC 2006] Which one of the following companies is associated with the exploration and commercial production of oil in Barmer Sanchore basin of Rajasthan?

    Options: (a) Cairn Energy * (b) Unocal Corporation (c) Reliance Energy Ventures (d) ONGC

     

  • [pib] SAKSHAM-3000  

    Why in the News?

    The Ministry of Communications has launched SAKSHAM-3000, a 25.6 Tbps indigenous switch-cum-router, to boost India’s data, cloud, and telecom infrastructure, marking a major leap in advanced networking technology.

    What is SAKSHAM-3000?

    • Overview: It is a high-speed switch-cum-router developed by the Centre for Development of Telematics (C-DOT) to strengthen India’s digital infrastructure.
    • Indigenous Operating System: The device runs on CROS (C-DOT Router Operating System), enabling modular, scalable, and secure network operations.
    • Next-Gen Capability: It is designed for ultra-fast data transmission, offering up to 25.6 Terabits per second (Tbps) throughput.
    • Use Cases: It is suitable for data centres, 5G/6G networks, AI systems, and hyperscale computing clusters.
    • Cloud and Telecom Ready: It supports cloud-native deployments, legacy protocols, and future network architectures simultaneously.

    Technical Highlights and Capabilities:

    • Massive Throughput: It supports 32 ports of 400G Ethernet and multiple speeds from 1G to 400G, delivering full 25.6 Tbps capacity.
    • Wire-Speed Performance: Data packets are processed at line rate, ensuring real-time transmission with no bottlenecks.
    • Time-Sensitive Applications: It includes support for Precision Time Protocol (PTP) and Synchronous Ethernet (Sync-E) to ensure accurate timing in industrial and telecom networks.
    • Full Protocol Support: It is compatible with Layer-2 switching, IP routing, and Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) for broad network configurations.
    • Traffic Management: Features like Weighted Round Robin (WRR) and Weighted Random Early Detection (WRED) improve traffic handling and reduce congestion.
    • Energy Efficiency: It uses a power-optimized architecture, balancing high performance with low power consumption for sustainable data centre use.
    • Flexible Licensing: Enterprises and telecom providers can customize licensing models for cost-effective scalability based on specific deployment needs.
    [UPSC 2016] With reference to ‘LiFi’, recently in the news, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. It uses light as the medium for high-speed data transmission. 2. It is a wireless technology and is several times faster than ‘WiFi’.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2