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GS Paper: GS1-15.Geographical features and their location- Changes in critical geographical features (including water-bodies and ice-caps) and in flora and fauna and the effects of such changes.

  • Places in news: Afanasy Nikitin Seamount

    Why in the news?

    • India has applied to the International Seabed Authority (ISBA) for exploration rights in the Afanasy Nikitin (AN) Seamount in the Indian Ocean outside its jurisdiction.
    • India’s application is motivated by reports of Chinese vessels conducting reconnaissance in the same region, raising concerns about strategic interests and resource competition.

    About International Seabed Authority (ISBA)

     

    • The ISBA is an intergovernmental organization established under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).
    • It was established in 1994 and headquartered in Kingston, Jamaica.
    • ISA is tasked with regulating mineral-related activities in the international seabed area beyond national jurisdiction, which includes polymetallic nodules, polymetallic sulphides, and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts.
    • The Authority issues exploration and exploitation contracts to countries and private entities for deep-sea mining activities, subject to certain regulations and environmental safeguards.
    • ISA comprises various organs, including the Assembly, the Council, the Legal and Technical Commission, and the Secretariat, each with specific functions related to deep-sea mining regulation.
    • According to Article 156(2) of the UNCLOS, all UNCLOS parties are members of ISBA.
    • As of 2023 has 169 members, including 168 member states and the European Union.
    • India became a member of the UNCLOS in 1994.

     

    About AN Seamount

    • The AN Seamount, located about 3,000 km from India’s coast, is a substantial structural feature in the Central Indian Ocean Basin.
    • A seamount is a large submarine landform that rises from the ocean floor without reaching the surface, and thus is not an island.
    • It is 400 km-long and 150 km-wide. From an oceanic depth of about 4,800 metres it rises to about 1,200 metres.
    • It was discovered during a marine research expedition, named after the Russian explorer Afanasy Nikitin.
    • It is renowned for its polymetallic nodules containing cobalt, nickel, manganese, and copper

    Continental Shelf Claims and Implications

    • Sri Lanka has applied for continental shelf claims up to 500 nautical miles beyond its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), citing a special provision.
    • India, noting Chinese presence, has staked a claim for exploration rights to prevent future consequences.
    • India has also applied for permission to explore another region, spanning 3,00,000 square km, called the Carlsberg Ridge in the Central Indian Ocean to investigate for polymetallic sulphides, which are reportedly rich in copper, zinc, gold and silver.

    PYQ:

    2021: Consider the following statements:​

    1. The Global Ocean Commission grants licences for seabed exploration and mining in international waters.​
    2. India has received licences for seabed mineral exploration in international waters.​
    3. ‘Rare earth minerals’ are present on seafloor in international waters.​

    Which of the statements given above are correct?​

    a)    1 and 2 only ​

    b)    2 and 3 only​

    c)    1 and 3 only ​

    d)    1, 2 and 3​

     

    Practice MCQ:

    Consider the following statements about the International Seabed Authority (ISBA):

    1. ISBA is an intergovernmental organization established under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).
    2. All UN members are naturally parties to the ISBA.

    Which of the given statements is/are correct?

    a)    Only 1

    b)    Only 2

    c)    Both 1 and 2

    d)    Neither 1 nor 2

  • Geo-Heritage Sites in India

    Why in the news

    • Pandavula Gutta, an ancient geological marvel predating the Himalayan hills, has been officially designated as Telangana’s sole Geo-heritage site.
    • Also the 165 million-year-old meteor Ramgarh Crater in Rajasthan was declared geo-heritage site.

    [A] Pandavula Gutta

    • Pandavula Gutta is located in Jayashankar Bhupalpally District in Telangana.
    • It is known for its rock art and geological heritage.
    • The site features Paleolithic cave paintings depicting wildlife and symbols.
    • Discovered in 1990, it showcases habitation from the mesolithic to medieval times.
    • Recognized as the sole Geo-heritage site in Telangana, older than the Himalayan hills.

     

    [B] Ramgarh Crater

    • The Ramgarh Crater, also known as Ramgarh structure, Ramgarh Dome, and Ramgarh astrobleme, is a meteor impact crater located near the town of Ramgarh in Baran district of Rajasthan.
    • It is established as an asteroid impact crater in India, excavated within sandstone, shale, and limestone horizons of the Lower Bhander Group of the Vindhyan Region.
    • It was formed by a meteorite impact, with a diameter of 3.2 kilometers and an elevation of over 200 meters above the surrounding terrain.
    • It is declared Conservation Reserve, namely Ramgarh Conservation Reserve, under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and a notified wetland under Wetland (Conservation & Management) Rules, 2017.

     

    What are Geo-Heritage Sites?

    • Geo-Heritage Sites in India are geological features of significant importance, either culturally or inherently, that provide insights into the Earth’s evolution or serve educational purposes.
    • These sites are recognized and protected by the Geological Survey of India (GSI) and the respective State governments.
    • India presently has 34 National Geological Heritage Monument Sites.
    • Examples:
      1. Mawmluh Cave in Meghalaya
      2. Majuli Island in Assam
      3. Chabimura in Tripura
    • Purpose:
      1. Promote geotourism
      2. Preserve unique geological formations
      3. Enhance geological literacy among the public

     

    Tap this link to read more about all Geo-Heritage Parks in India:

    https://vikaspedia.in/education/childrens-corner/geological-heritage-sites-of-india

    PYQ:

    Q.Which one of the following statements is correct?​ (2021)

    1. Ajanta Caves lie in the gorge of Waghora River.​
    2. Sanchi Stupa lies in the gorge of Chambal River.​
    3. Pandu-Lena Cave Shrines lie in the gorge of Narmada River.​
    4. Amaravati Stupa lies in the gorge of Godavari River.​

    Practice MCQ:

    Which of the given statements about the Ramgarh Structure is NOT correct?

    1. It is an asteroid impact crater.
    2. It is located in the Deccan Plateau.
    3. It is a notified wetland under Wetland (Conservation & Management) Rules, 2017.
    4. It is under Conservation Reserve under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.

  • Atmospheric Research Testbed in Central India (ART-CI)

    Why in the news-

    • The Ministry of Earth Sciences has commissioned Atmospheric Research Testbed-Central India (ART-CI) near Bhopal.

    About Atmospheric Research Testbed

    • ART-CI stands as an innovative testbed facility, pioneering the exploration of monsoon convection and land-atmosphere interactions, marking a significant advancement in climate research.
    • The Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM), Pune leads ART-CI, operating under the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES).

    Mission Objectives

    • ART-CI primarily targets the monsoon trough area, encompassing the Monsoon Core Zone (MCZ), a critical component of the regional climate system.
    • Understanding this zone is paramount for precise weather forecasts and accurate climate modelling within India.

    Monsoon Core Zone (MCZ)

     

    • MCZ is a region in India stretching from Gujarat to West Bengal in the east.
    • India Meteorological Department demarcates it as an agricultural region where cropping is mostly rainfed.
    • It is the region within the monsoon trough area that plays a central role in the dynamics of the Indian monsoon system.
    • It is characterized by intense convective activity, significant rainfall, and crucial atmospheric interactions that influence the overall behavior of the monsoon.
    • The MCZ typically experiences a concentration of atmospheric processes that drive the onset, progression, and withdrawal of the monsoon rains across the Indian subcontinent.

    Features and Capabilities

    • ART-CI’s development unfolds incrementally as part of the Atmosphere & Climate Research-Modelling Observing Systems & Services (ACROSS) umbrella scheme.
    • The facility will feature an extensive array of remote-sensing and in-situ instruments.
    • These tools would help monitoring of various atmospheric parameters like convection, cloud cover, precipitation, soil moisture, radiation levels, and microphysics.

  • In news: Popocatepetl Volcano

    In the news

    • Popocatepetl, Mexico’s most dangerous active volcano has erupted 13 times in the past day, hurling columns of ash and smoke into the sky.

    About Popocatepetl Volcano

    • Popocatepetl — which means “Smoking Mountain” in the Aztec Nahuatl language — is located in central Mexico roughly 72 km southeast of Mexico City.
    • Popocatepetl is situated in the eastern half of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, in Central Mexico.
    • It lies on the border between the states of Puebla and Morelos.
    • The summit of Popocatepetl stands at an elevation of about 5,426 meters above sea level, making it the second-highest peak in Mexico after Citlaltepetl (Pico de Orizaba).

    Geological Details

    • Popocatepetl is a stratovolcano (composite volcano) characterized by its steep, conical shape built up by successive layers of volcanic ash, lava flows, and pyroclastic materials.
    • It is one of Mexico’s most active volcanoes, with documented eruptions dating back to the 14th century.
    • In the modern era, significant eruptions have occurred in 1947, 1994, 2000, 2005, and ongoing activity since 2013.
    • The volcano’s eruptions are primarily andesitic to dacitic in composition, characterized by the eruption of viscous lava flows and explosive eruptions producing ash clouds, pyroclastic flows, and lahars (mudflows).

    Try this PYQ from CSE Mains 2021

    Q. Mention the global occurrence of volcanic eruptions in 2021 and their impact on regional environment.

  • Singhbhum Craton: Insights from the Archaean Age

    Why in the News?

    • Some recent study about the Singhbhum Craton in India, reveals that explosive volcanic eruptions were frequent around 3.5 billion years ago in regions that are also present in South Africa, and Australia.

    What are Cratons?

    • Cratons are stable, ancient portions of the continental lithosphere, consisting of Earth’s two topmost layers—the crust and the uppermost mantle.
    • Cratons are typically found in the interiors of tectonic plates and are characterized by their ancient crystalline basement rock, often dating back to the Archean Eon.
    • Mantle plume events have played a significant role in the evolution of cratons.

    About Singhbhum Craton:

    • The Singhbhum Craton is a geological region in India.
    • Location: It is located in eastern India, covering parts of the states of Jharkhand, Odisha, and West Bengal. The craton is separated from the Bastar Craton by the Mahanadi Graben and is in the vicinity of two Proterozoic mobile belts: the Satpura Mobile Belt and the Eastern Ghat Mobile Belt.
    • Geological features:
      • The rocks in the Singhbhum Craton are predominantly of Archean age, ranging from Paleoarchean to Paleoproterozoic.
      • It is a part of the larger Indian Shield, which is a stable continental crust that formed during the Archean Eon.
      • The Singhbhum Craton is known for its abundant occurrences of Banded Iron Formations (BIFs), which are closely associated with basic volcanic and ultrabasic intrusive. The craton is also known for its iron ore deposits, which are found in the Iron Ore Group (IOG) and are closely associated with lavas and tuffs.
      • The Singhbhum Craton has undergone regional metamorphism of the amphibolite facies and is believed to have evolved as a consequence of multiple phases of compressive deformation.
      • The craton is made up of multiple pulses of discrete mantle plume events, resulting in a complex geological history.

    Archaean Eon

    • The Archaean Eon, one of the two formal divisions of Precambrian time, began about 4 billion years ago and extended to the start of the Proterozoic Eon.
    • During this period, life on Earth was limited to simple single-celled organisms lacking nuclei, known as Prokaryota.
    • The atmosphere lacked oxygen, and the Earth’s crust had cooled enough to allow the formation of continents.
    • Volcanic activity was considerably higher than today, with numerous lava eruptions.
    • The oldest rock formations exposed on Earth are from the Archaean Eon.
    • The Archaean rock system includes Archaean Gneisses and Schists, which are the oldest metamorphosed rocks found in abundance in regions like the Dharwar district of Karnataka.

    What are the recent key findings?

    • Submarine Mafic Volcanism: The prevalence of submarine mafic volcanic eruptions between 3.5 and 3.3 billion years ago is documented, enriching our understanding of ancient volcanic and sedimentary processes.
    • Geodynamic Insights: Comparative analysis enhances our comprehension of early Earth tectonic activities and surface/atmospheric processes during the Archaean.

    Research Methodology Used:

    • Field Studies and Radiometric Dating: Detailed field-based studies coupled with uranium-lead radiometric-age dating were employed to establish geological timelines and understand magma crystallization.
    • Comparative Analysis: The geological similarities between the Singhbhum Craton and counterparts in South Africa and Australia were studied, focusing on volcanic eruption patterns.

    Implications and Significance of the study:

    • Earth’s Formative Years: Insights into Earth’s early tectonic activities contribute significantly to understanding the planet’s formative years.
    • Habitable Conditions: Unique geological features, such as greenstone belts, provide invaluable information about early habitable conditions and the emergence of life.
    • Global Geodynamic Processes: Comparative studies across cratons worldwide facilitate the construction of comprehensive models elucidating ancient geodynamic processes prevalent during the Archaean.

  • Cauvery pact: a controversial journey

     

    Krishna Raja Sagar Dam

    Central Idea:

    The article recounts the historical background and negotiations leading to the Agreement between the states of Mysore and Madras regarding the construction and regulation of dams on the Cauvery River. It highlights the challenges faced, key terms agreed upon, and the significance of the agreement in resolving disputes and laying down principles for water management in the region.

    Key Highlights:

    • M. Visvesvaraya’s proposal for the Krishnarajasagara (KRS) reservoir in 1910.
    • Arbitration led by Sir H.D. Griffin resulting in the approval of the KRS dam project.
    • Friction between Madras and Mysore over the execution of the dam’s next phase.
    • Negotiations and arbitration processes spanning several years.
    • Drafting of rules for the regulation of KRS and other reservoirs.
    • The signing of the Agreement, facilitating the construction of KRS and Mettur dams.
    • Consent for irrigation projects and assurance of water supplies to Madras.
    • Perception of the agreement as a fair settlement by Mysore’s Dewan, A.R. Banerji.

    Key Challenges:

    • Disputes over water rights and dam construction between upper and lower riparian states.
    • Lengthy negotiations and arbitration processes due to differing interests and concerns.
    • Balancing the need for irrigation expansion with the preservation of water resources.
    • Ensuring equitable distribution of water while addressing the concerns of both states.

    Main Terms:

    • Construction of KRS and Mettur dams.
    • Limitation on new irrigation areas under the Mettur project.
    • Formulation of rules for the regulation of reservoirs.
    • Assurance of water supplies to Madras.
    • Review of certain stipulations after 50 years.

    Important Phrases:

    • “Kannambadi Arbitration Case”
    • “Prescriptive right of Madras”
    • “Broader settlement”
    • “Give and take”
    • “British hand”

    Quotes:

    • “A fair and honourable settlement.” – A.R. Banerji, Mysore Dewan.
    • “The spirit of ‘give and take’ reigned throughout.” – A.R. Banerji.
    • “No British hand behind the settlement.” – A.R. Banerji.

    Anecdotes:

    • Sir H.D. Griffin’s swift arbitration process.
    • Negotiations between Mysore and Madras officials.
    • A.R. Banerji’s statement in The Hindu.

    Useful Statements:

    • “The pact allowed a review of certain stipulations of the agreement after 50 years.”
    • “The agreement was perceived as a fair settlement by both parties involved.”
    • “Balancing irrigation expansion with water resource preservation was a key challenge.”

    Examples and References:

    • Construction of the KRS and Mettur dams.
    • Negotiation processes between Madras and Mysore officials.
    • A.R. Banerji’s statement published in The Hindu.

    Facts and Data:

    • Construction of KRS with a capacity of 44.83 TMC.
    • Limitation of new irrigation areas under the Mettur project to 3.01 lakh acres.
    • Review of certain stipulations after 50 years.

    Critical Analysis:

    The Agreement marked a significant milestone in resolving the Cauvery River dispute between Mysore and Madras. Despite initial challenges and differing interests, the agreement laid down principles for water management and established a framework for future cooperation. While perceptions may vary, A.R. Banerji’s statement underscores the agreement’s perceived fairness and the spirit of cooperation between the two states.

    Way Forward:

    The Agreement serves as a historical precedent for resolving interstate water disputes through negotiation and compromise. Moving forward, stakeholders should build upon this foundation to address evolving water management challenges, ensuring equitable distribution and sustainable use of water resources in the region. Cooperation and dialogue remain essential for fostering lasting solutions to water-related conflicts.

  • How Lakshadweep’s Unique Cultural Landscape developed?

    Lakshadweep

    Introduction

    • PM’s recent trip to Lakshadweep has brought the islands into the national conversation.

    About Lakshadweep

    Details
    Location In the Arabian Sea, off the southwestern coast of India.
    Geographical Formation Formed by coral activities and have a coral atoll structure.
    Formation as UT Formed as a Union Territory of India in 1956.
    Total Islands Comprises 36 islands, including atolls, coral reefs, and submerged banks.
    Inhibition 10 of the 36 islands are inhabited.
    Capital Kavaratti is the capital of the Union Territory.
    Area Total area of 32 sq km.

    Cultural Uniqueness of Lakshadweep

    • Diverse Influences: The islands exhibit a unique blend of cultural influences from Malayalis, Arabs, Tamils, and Kannadigas.
    • Distinct Islamic Practice: The form of Islam practiced here is distinct from the rest of India, reflecting the islands’ diverse ethnic and linguistic heritage.

    Historical Roots: A Pre-Islamic Hindu Society

    • Early Settlers: Scholar Andrew W Forbes suggests that the first settlers were likely Malabari sailors, possibly castaways.
    • Hindu Influence: Evidence points to a pre-Islamic Hindu society, with remnants like buried idols and traditional songs hinting at past Hindu practices.

    Conversion to Islam: A Gradual Transition

    • Arab Influence: Regular contact with Arab merchants and sailors led to the gradual conversion of islanders to Islam, distinct from the Islamic practices in mainland India.
    • Peaceful Introduction of Islam: Historian Mahmood Kooria notes that Islam’s introduction in the region, including Lakshadweep, was marked by minimal political conflict, primarily through commercial interactions.

    Cultural Development: Insulation from Mainland Influences

    • Control by the Arakkal Kingdom: In the 16th century, the islands fell under the Arakkal kingdom of Kannur, Kerala’s only Muslim dynasty.
    • European Interactions: Despite conflicts with European powers, the islands maintained a degree of protection and isolation.
    • British Era: The British rule further insulated Lakshadweep, allowing its culture to evolve distinctly from mainland India.
    • Linguistic Diversity: The islands’ isolation is reflected in their linguistic diversity, with Malayalam, Jazari, and Mahl being the main languages.

    Matrilineal Society: A Unique Aspect of Lakshadweep’s Islam

    • Matriliny in Islamic Society: Lakshadweep’s Islamic society is characterized by matriliny, tracing descent and property through the mother’s line.
    • Anthropological Perspectives: Anthropologist Leela Dube highlights the compatibility of matriliny with Islam in Lakshadweep, contrary to conventional Islamic practices.
    • Kerala’s Influence: Historian Manu Pillai links the matrilineal tradition to Kerala’s cultural patterns, where Nairs and Namboodiris practised matriliny.
    • Broader Indian Ocean Context: Kooria points out that matriliny is common among Muslims in the Indian Ocean region, suggesting a broader cultural context.

    Religious and Sociological Interpretations

    • Islamic Justification for Matriliny: Islanders believe their matrilineal practice aligns with Islam, citing Prophet Muhammad’s life with his first wife, Khadija.
    • Sociological Viewpoint: Dr. N P Hafiz Mohamad emphasizes that the islanders see matriliny as integral to their Islamic practice.

    Conclusion

    • Preservation of Unique Traditions: Lakshadweep’s relative isolation has helped preserve its unique cultural and religious practices.
    • Integration of Diverse Influences: The islands represent a remarkable integration of various cultural and religious influences, forming a distinct identity within the Indian subcontinent.
    • Significance in Broader Indian Ocean Culture: Lakshadweep’s cultural practices, particularly its matrilineal society, highlight the interconnectedness and diversity of cultures across the Indian Ocean region.

  • What are Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs)?

    Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs)

    Central Idea

    • Residents in the Arctic have witnessed an extraordinary atmospheric display of Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs).

    Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs)

    Details
    Formation and Location Form in the polar stratosphere at altitudes of 15,000–25,000 meters; common over Antarctica and the Arctic.
    Temperature Conditions Require extremely cold temperatures, typically below −78°C (−108°F).
    Types Type I: Composed of water and nitric acid.

    Type II: Made almost entirely of water ice.
    Role in Ozone Depletion Facilitate chemical reactions that produce chlorine and bromine compounds, leading to ozone destruction.
    Appearance Iridescent, shimmering pastel colors, leading to their nickname “nacreous” or “mother-of-pearl” clouds.
    Observation Visible during twilight, illuminated from below by the Sun.
    Research and Monitoring Studied for impact on ozone depletion and climate change; monitored via satellites and ground stations.
    Environmental Concern Linked to human-made chemicals like CFCs; subject to international regulation like the Montreal Protocol.
    Climate Change Connection Research ongoing into how climate change might affect PSCs’ frequency and distribution.
    Discovery and Study History Observed since the 19th century; their role in ozone depletion understood in the 1980s.

  • Volcanic Eruption in Iceland

    Iceland

    Central Idea

    • A volcanic eruption occurred near Iceland’s capital between Sýlingarfell and Hagafell, near the town of Grindavik on the Reykjanes Peninsula.

    Iceland: ‘Land of Fire and Ice’

    • Geographical Location: Iceland is situated just south of the Arctic Circle in the North Atlantic Ocean.
    • Tectonic Setting: The country lies on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, marking the boundary between the North American and Eurasian tectonic plates.
    • Unique Landscape: Iceland’s landscape features geysers, glaciers, mountains, volcanoes, and lava fields, housing 33 active volcanoes – the highest number in Europe.
    • Historical Settlement: The first human settlement in Iceland dates back to 874 by Norsemen from Scandinavia, leading to the founding of Reykjavik.

    Recent Volcanic Activity on the Reykjanes Peninsula

    • Historical Dormancy: The Reykjanes Peninsula had not experienced volcanic eruptions for 800 years until recently.
    • Recent Eruptions: The current eruption is the fourth in less than three years on the peninsula, indicating a potential new era of volcanic activity.
    • Eyjafjallajokull Eruption: The last major volcanic event in Iceland that gained global attention was the 2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajokull.
    • Eruption Timeline and Impact: The volcano erupted twice in March and April 2010, spreading an ash cloud across continents and disrupting air traffic on the North Atlantic route for six days – the longest disruption since World War II.

  • Places in news: Mount Merapi

    volcano

    Central Idea

    • Mount Merapi in Indonesia has erupted yet again this year, spewing an ash tower 3,000 metres into the sky.

     

    Merapi Volcano: A Brief Overview

    • Location: Situated in Central Java, Indonesia, Merapi is aptly named “Mountain of Fire” in Javanese.
    • Activity: It ranks among the world’s most active and perilous volcanoes, known for frequent and often violent eruptions.
    • 2010 Eruption: The last significant eruption in 2010 led to over 350 fatalities and extensive damage to surrounding areas.
    • Tourist Attraction: Despite its dangers, Merapi attracts hikers and tourists drawn to its beauty and geological significance.

    Other active volcanoes in Indonesia

    volcano

    Indonesia is home to many active volcanoes, with over 120 active volcanoes located across the country. Some of the other major volcanoes in Indonesia include:

    • Mount Krakatoa: Located in the Sunda Strait, it’s notorious for the catastrophic 1883 eruption.
    • Mount Rinjani: On Lombok Island, it’s Indonesia’s second-highest volcano and a trekking hotspot.
    • Mount Tambora: Famous for the 1815 eruption, it caused the “year without summer” and is situated on Sumbawa Island.
    • Mount Batur: In Bali, known for scenic vistas and hot springs.
    • Mount Merbabu: The highest in Central Java, it’s a favored destination for climbers.

    Why so many volcanoes in Indonesia?

    • Pacific Ring of Fire: Indonesia’s location on this seismic hotspot explains its high volcanic activity.
    • Volcanic Density: With over 120 active volcanoes, Indonesia faces frequent eruptions, posing risks to its population and infrastructure.

    Back2Basics: Pacific Ring of Fire

    • Geographical Span: This 40,000 km horseshoe-shaped belt around the Pacific Ocean is a seismic hub.
    • Volcanic and Seismic Activity: Home to 75% of the world’s active volcanoes and 90% of earthquakes.
    • Tectonic Movements: The Pacific Plate’s collision with smaller plates leads to subduction, causing friction and pressure.
    • Resulting Phenomena: This tectonic activity results in frequent volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.
    • Countries Included: The Ring of Fire affects several regions, including Japan, Indonesia, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, New Zealand, and the Americas’ west coasts.
    • Natural Resources: The region is rich in geothermal energy and minerals.