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GS Paper: GS2

  • U.S.-India ties will be strengthened, but expect tariff trouble, FTA push: Former Ambassador Juster

    Why in the News?

    After the USA’s election result, U.S.-India (in 2nd term of Donald Trump) ties could be stronger, but issues over tariffs might cause trouble.

    Why US India ties will be strengthed?

    • Shared Strategic Interests: The U.S. and India both view China as a significant strategic challenge, which aligns their interests in the Indo-Pacific region. This common perspective fosters collaboration on defence and security matters.
    • Political Will and Leadership: The anticipated second term of Donald Trump is expected to reinforce the U.S.-India relationship, as evidenced by the strong ties developed during his first term. Trump’s cabinet nominees are also pro-India, indicating a continuity of support for enhancing bilateral relations.
    • Economic Cooperation Potential: There is a renewed focus on trade agreements and economic partnerships, including the possibility of finalizing a Free Trade Agreement (FTA), which could enhance market access and reduce tariffs, benefiting both economies.
    • Defence and Technology Collaboration: Continued emphasis on defence cooperation and technology partnerships, particularly in areas like semiconductors and emerging technologies, will strengthen ties and enhance mutual security interests.

    In which area would ties be strengthened?

    • Defence and Security: The U.S. and India have significantly enhanced their defence cooperation, including joint military exercises and technology transfers, such as the recent offer to restart the transfer of jet engine technology to India.
      • The India-U.S. Initiative on Critical and Emerging Technology (iCET) aims to foster collaboration in areas like artificial intelligence, quantum technologies, and cybersecurity.
    • Economic Relations: Bilateral trade has surged, increasing by 72% from 2017-18 to 2022-23, highlighting a robust economic partnership.
      • Both nations are keen on resolving trade disputes to further enhance mutual benefits.
    • Technological Collaboration: Initiatives like INDUS-X focus on integrating defense start-ups from both countries, promoting innovation in military technology and enhancing capabilities in critical sectors like semiconductors.
    • Multilateral Cooperation: Engagement through platforms like the Quad (with Japan and Australia) strengthens regional security cooperation against common threats, particularly from China.

    What were the successful agreements between India and the USA during the first term of the Donald Trump period? 

    • Communications Compatibility and Security Agreement (COMCASA): Signed in September 2018, this agreement aimed to facilitate secure communication between the armed forces of both nations, thereby enhancing interoperability during joint operations.
    • Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement (BECA): Finalized in October 2020, BECA provided a framework for sharing geospatial intelligence, which is crucial for military planning and operations.
    • Industrial Security Annex (ISA): This agreement, signed in December 2019, allowing for greater collaboration in defence manufacturing and technology transfer between the two countries.
    • Strategic Trade Authorization (STA-1) Status: The U.S. elevated India to STA-1 status, allowing for easier access to advanced technologies that were previously restricted to NATO allies.
    • 2+2 Dialogue Format: This mechanism was initiated to bring together the defense and foreign ministers of both countries to discuss strategic issues, enhancing diplomatic engagement.

    What could be the challenges between India and the USA?

    • High Tariffs and Market Access: Disagreements over tariffs and market access for U.S. products in India, particularly in agriculture and technology sectors, remain significant irritants.
    • Geopolitical Tensions: Differences in policy regarding Iran and Russia may create friction in the bilateral relationship, particularly with India’s historical ties to Russia.
    • Legal Investigations: Ongoing investigations by the U.S. Department of Justice into cases involving Indian entities could complicate diplomatic relations and create perceptions of bias against the Indian government.

    What should India do to address the challenges? (Way forward)

    • Engage in Constructive Dialogue: India should actively engage with the U.S. to address tariff issues and seek mutually beneficial solutions that enhance market access for American products while protecting domestic interests.
    • Strengthen Economic Cooperation Frameworks: Pursuing comprehensive economic agreements that encompass trade, investment, and technology sharing can help mitigate tensions and foster a more robust partnership.
    • Clarify Stances on Geopolitical Issues: India needs to communicate its positions on sensitive geopolitical matters clearly to avoid misunderstandings with the U.S., particularly regarding its relationships with Iran and Russia.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q  Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) is transforming itself into a trade bloc from a military alliance, in present times Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2020)

  • What is the H-1B Visa Program?

    Why in the News?

    The US President-elect Donald Trump has expressed support for H-1B Visas but emphasized balancing immigration policies with protecting American jobs.

    About H-1B Visa Program

    Details
    What is it?
    • Allows U.S. employers to hire foreign workers for specialty occupations requiring:
      • High expertise.
      • A bachelor’s degree or higher.
    • Administered by the U.S. Department of Labor to address skill shortages in the U.S. workforce.
    • Employment under H-1B is temporary but renewable.
    Key Features
    • Purpose: Provides access to specialized talent unavailable domestically.
    • Annual Cap: 65,000 new H-1B visas + 20,000 for workers with U.S. master’s degrees or higher.
    • Exemptions: Workers in higher education institutions, non-profits, or government research organizations are not subject to the cap.
    How does it benefit in Indians?
    • Indians account for the largest group of H-1B beneficiaries (72.3% in FY 2023, ~2.79 lakh approvals).
    • Fields:
      • 65% employed in computer-related occupations.
      • Others include architecture/engineering (9.5%) and education (6%).
    • Median Compensation: $118,000 annually in 2023.

    Trends and Policy Changes:

    1. Admission Trends:
    • Pre-COVID rise (2018: 5.70 lakh; 2019: 6.01 lakh).
    • COVID-19 decline (2020: 3.68 lakh; 2021: 1.48 lakh).
    • Post-COVID recovery (2022: 4.10 lakh; 2023: 7.55 lakh).
    2. Denial Rates:
    • Increased during Trump era (2016: 6%; 2018: 24%).
    • Declined to 4% by 2021 and stabilized at 2% in 2022.
    • High denials during Trump’s term were often overturned upon appeal.

     

    PYQ:

    [2020] Indian diaspora has a decisive role to play in the politics and economy of America and European Countries’. Comment with examples.

  • China approves dam over Brahmaputra

    China approves dam over Brahmaputra

    Why in the News?

    China has announced the construction of world’s largest dam on the Brahmaputra River (known as Yarlung Zangbo in Tibet), sparking concerns in India and Bangladesh, the lower riparian states.

    About the Dam

    • This project is part of China’s 14th Five-Year Plan (2021-2025) and its long-term development strategy through 2035.
    • The dam will be constructed in the lower reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River in Tibet, near the Indian border.
    • It is situated at a massive gorge in the Himalayas, where the river takes a U-turn to flow into Arunachal Pradesh and then to Bangladesh.
    • Its investment exceeds $137 billion, dwarfing any other infrastructure project, including China’s Three Gorges Dam.
    Three Gorges Dam: It is a hydroelectric gravity dam that spans the Yangtze River near Sandouping in Yiling District, Yichang, Hubei province, central China, downstream of the Three Gorges.

    What are the concerns associated with the Dam Construction?

    • Geopolitical Control: China’s ability to regulate water flow raises fears of disruption and misuse during conflicts.
    • Environmental Impact: Risks to biodiversity, sediment flow, and downstream ecosystems in a fragile Himalayan zone.
    • Seismic Hazards: The dam’s location on a tectonic plate boundary increases earthquake risks.
    • Livelihood Disruption: Potential harm to agriculture, fishing, and local communities dependent on the river.
    • Transparency Issues: Limited data sharing and unilateral decisions heighten distrust among riparian states.

    PYQ:

    [2011] The Brahmaputra, Irrawady and Mekong rivers originate in Tibet and flow it through narrow and parallel mountain ranges in their upper reaches. Of these rivers, Brahmaputra makes a “U” turn in its course to flow into India. This “U” turn is due to:

    (a) Uplift of folded Himalayan series

    (b) Syntaxial bending of geologically young Himalayas

    (c) Geo-tectonic disturbance in the tertiary folded mountain chains

    (d) Both (A) and (B) above

  • UNGA adopts 10-Year Action Plan for Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDCs)

    Why in the News?

    The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) adopted a 10-Year Action Plan for Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDCs), aiming to address their unique challenges.

    UNGA adopts 10-Year Action Plan for Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDCs)

    Key Targets of the 10-Year Action Plan for LLDCs (2024–2034):

    The Programme of Action for LLDCs aims to address their unique challenges through targeted actions across 5 priority areas:

    • Structural Transformation and Innovation:
      • Promote economic diversification and industrialization.
      • Advance science, technology, and innovation to enhance productivity and competitiveness.
    • Trade Facilitation and Regional Integration:
      • Simplify and enhance trade processes to improve access to global markets.
      • Strengthen participation in regional and global trade agreements.
      • Reduce trade costs through better policies and infrastructure.
    • Transit, Transport, and Connectivity:
      • Develop and modernize transit infrastructure, such as roads, railways, and ports.
      • Improve connectivity to reduce dependence on neighboring countries.
      • Enhance customs procedures to ensure smoother transit of goods.
    • Resilience to Climate Change and Disasters:
      • Build adaptive capacities to address vulnerabilities caused by climate change.
      • Develop strategies to reduce disaster risks and mitigate environmental challenges.
    • Means of Implementation:
      • Mobilize financial resources, technical assistance, and international support.
      • Foster partnerships among governments, international organizations, and private sectors.

    What Are Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDCs)?

    • LLDCs are nations that lack access to a coastline and are surrounded by neighboring countries.
    • Currently, there are 32 LLDCs, primarily in Africa, Asia, Europe, and South America.
    • List of LLDCs:
      1. Africa: Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Central African Republic, Chad, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Lesotho, Malawi, Mali, Niger, Rwanda, South Sudan, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe.
      2. Asia: Afghanistan, Bhutan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Mongolia, Nepal, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan.
      3. Europe: Armenia, Azerbaijan, North Macedonia, Moldova, Serbia.
      4. South America: Bolivia, Paraguay.
    • Challenges Faced by LLDCs:
      • High Trade Costs: LLDCs face 1.4 times higher trade costs than coastal nations due to dependence on neighboring countries for transit and lengthy customs procedures.
      • Limited Market Access: Lack of direct access to global markets restricts their ability to compete internationally and increases transportation costs.
      • Infrastructure Deficits: Poor road, rail, and communication networks hinder connectivity and efficient trade operations.
      • Climate Vulnerability: LLDCs are highly susceptible to climate change impacts like droughts and floods, with limited resources to mitigate risks.
      • Economic and Political Dependence: Over-reliance on transit countries for trade routes leads to geopolitical challenges and limits economic diversification.

  • In news: Greenland

    Why in the News?

    US President-elect Donald Trump has once again expressed interest in buying Greenland, and Greenland has again stated it is not for sale.

    In news: Greenland

    Why is the US so much interested in Greenland?

    • Greenland is strategically located in the North Atlantic Ocean, between Europe and North America, and across the Baffin Bay from Canada.
      • The US maintains a large air base in Greenland, the Pituffik Space Base (formerly Thule Air Base).
    • From here, the US can monitor and counter missile threats from Russia, China, and North Korea.
    • Greenland is abundant in rare earth minerals, critical for manufacturing electronics, electric vehicles, and weapons.
    • Melting ice caps due to global warming are opening new shipping routes in the Arctic.
      • Greenland’s position is crucial for controlling these waterways, with the US seeking to limit Russian and Chinese influence in the region.

    Greenland: Everything you need to know

    Details
    About 
    • World’s largest island, located in the North Atlantic Ocean between Europe and North America; part of the Kingdom of Denmark.
    • An autonomous territory within Denmark, managing domestic affairs, while Denmark oversees defense, foreign policy, and some economic matters.
    • Population: ~57,000, primarily Inuit communities, concentrated along the coast.
    • Transitioned from a Danish colony to self-rule in 1979, gaining further autonomy in 2009.
    Geographical Features
    • Covers 2.16 million square kilometers, with ~80% under the Greenland Ice Sheet, a critical focus for studying climate change and sea-level rise.
    • Predominantly Arctic climate, with freezing temperatures most of the year; milder summers in the southern coastal areas.
    • Rich in rare earth minerals, iron ore, zinc, lead, and uranium, making it geopolitically significant.
    • Banned uranium mining in 2021 for environmental reasons.
    Political Features
    • Has its own parliament (Inatsisartut) and prime minister overseeing domestic policies; Denmark controls foreign relations and defense.
    • Closely tied to Denmark, with Danish subsidies accounting for ~60% of Greenland’s budget.
    • Some political groups advocate for full independence, though economic dependence complicates this goal.

     

    PYQ:

    [2014] Consider the following countries :

    1. Denmark
    2. Japan
    3. Russian Federation
    4. United Kingdom
    5. United States of America

    Which of the above are the members of the ‘Arctic Council ‘?

    (a) 1, 2 and 3

    (b) 2, 3 and 4

    (c) 1, 4 and 5

    (d) 1, 3 and 5

  • [27th December 2024] The Hindu Op-ed: Tapping into Kazakhstan’s rare earths potential

    PYQ Relevance:

    Q) A number of outside powers have entrenched themselves in Central Asia, which is a zone of interest to India. Discuss the implications, in this context, of India’s joining the Ashgabat Agreement, in 2018. (UPSC CSE 2018)

    Mentor’s Comment: UPSC mains have always focused on ‘Central Asia’ (2018) and ‘distribution of minerals’ (2021).

    As the world shifts to cleaner energy using advanced technology, the demand for rare earths is rising. India, the third-largest carbon emitter, is focusing on renewable energy and needs more rare earths. Despite being the fifth-largest holder of rare earth elements, India depends heavily on imports from China due to a lack of advanced extraction technologies. To reduce this dependency amid supply chain issues and security concerns, India is diversifying its sources by partnering with the U.S., Latin American, and African countries. Kazakhstan is also emerging as a promising and closer alternative.

    Today’s editorial critically examines the diversification of critical minerals (Rare Earth Elements). This content can be used to present the importance of central Asian countries ( like Kazakhstan) for rare earth elements.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    India’s reliance on China and the possible global changes with a new U.S. government show the need to diversify. In this situation, Kazakhstan is emerging as a promising and closer alternative.

    What are the current reserves and potential of Kazakhstan’s rare earth elements?

    • Number of Deposits: Kazakhstan has 15 registered rare earth deposits located primarily in three regions: Turkistan, Kostanai, and Mangystau. These deposits are crucial for electronics and clean energy technologies.
    • Types of Elements in Kazakhstan: The country holds a diverse range of rare metals, including: Tungsten: Approximately 2.2 million tons of reserves; Molybdenum: Around 1 million tons; Lithium: Estimated at 75,600 tons; Tantalum: About 4,600 tons; Niobium: Approximately 28,100 tons; Beryllium: Roughly 58,000 tons.
    • Exploration Goals: Kazakhstan aims to explore over two million square kilometres of its territory by 2026, with significant investments planned to develop these resources further.

    Potential for Growth
    • Strategic Importance: The Kazakh government views rare earths as the “new oil” for its economy, emphasizing their role in technological advancement and energy transition. President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev has identified the development of these metals as a priority.
    • Global Demand Trends: The demand for REEs is projected to increase significantly in the coming years, driven by their essential role in renewable energy technologies and high-tech industries. The International Energy Agency (IEA) estimates that demand for rare earth elements could increase three to seven times by 2040.
    • International Partnerships: Kazakhstan is actively seeking partnerships with countries like the U.S., Germany, and Japan to enhance its mining capabilities and attract foreign investment. This collaboration could position Kazakhstan as a key supplier in the global REE market.

    What is the monopoly of China?

    • Dominance in Global Production and Supply: China controls over one-third of the world’s rare earth reserves and produces about 70% of global rare earths, making it the leading supplier. India relies on China for 60% of its rare earth imports due to insufficient domestic production.
    • Strategic Leverage Over Supply Chains: China’s ability to disrupt mineral and technology supplies during bilateral disputes enables it to control global rare earth supply chains.  

    How can Kazakhstan position itself as a competitive alternative to China in the global rare earth market?

    • Diversification of Partners: Kazakhstan has already entered into extraction agreements with countries like Japan, Germany, the U.S., South Korea, and the EU, signalling its growing importance as a reliable supplier of rare earth.
    • Advanced Extraction Technologies: Kazakhstan is investing in advanced technologies and partnerships to improve extraction processes and increase production efficiency.
    • Strategic Positioning: Kazakhstan’s location in Central Asia, combined with its cooperation in regional connectivity projects like the International North-South Transport Corridor, makes it an attractive alternative to China for countries like India seeking to diversify their sources.
    • Government Prioritization: The Kazakh government is focusing on strengthening its role in the global rare earth market by investing in technologies for lithium, battery materials, and heat-resistant alloys, which could bolster its competitive position.

    What are the challenges in developing its rare earth sector?

    • Technological Limitations: While Kazakhstan has significant reserves, the country currently lacks some advanced extraction technologies that are crucial for optimizing its rare earth production and processing.
    • Infrastructure Gaps: There may be logistical challenges in scaling up mining operations and transportation networks to meet global demand, especially with Kazakhstan being landlocked.
    • Global Competition: Despite Kazakhstan’s rich reserves, it faces stiff competition from established players like China, and it must enhance its production capabilities to be a viable alternative.
    • Environmental and Sustainability Concerns: Developing rare earth extraction technologies in an environmentally sustainable way is a key challenge that Kazakhstan must address to avoid the pitfalls of over-exploitation seen in other parts of the world.

    How can India play a significant role in this situation? (Way forward)

    • Bilateral Partnerships: India can deepen its strategic partnership with Kazakhstan, particularly through the proposed “India-Central Asia Rare Earths Forum” which can help facilitate joint ventures in mining, technology transfer, and shared geological data.
    • Technology Transfer and Expertise: India, with its growing interest in rare earths for clean energy and defence sectors, can collaborate with Kazakhstan to share expertise in sustainable extraction technologies and mining practices.
    • Supply Chain Diversification: India can help Kazakhstan expand its rare earth production and distribution, reducing India’s dependence on China for critical minerals.
    • Private Sector Investment: India’s private sector can invest in Kazakhstan’s rare earth extraction sector, helping to scale up operations and build necessary infrastructure to meet global demand.
    • Regional Integration: By connecting Kazakhstan’s mining capabilities to broader regional markets, India can enhance its own resource security while also supporting Kazakhstan’s economic growth, thus strengthening the geopolitical influence of both nations in Central Asia.

    https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/tapping-into-kazakhstans-rare-earths-potential/article69029785.ece#:~:text=India%2DKazakhstan%20collaboration%20can%20enhance,through%20partners%20in%20closer%20proximity.

  • United Nations Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF)

    Why in the News?

    UN Secretary-General paid tribute to Brigadier General Amitabh Jha of India, who died serving with the United Nations Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF) in the Golan Heights.

    About United Nations Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF)

    • The UNDOF is a peacekeeping mission established by the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) to oversee the implementation of a ceasefire agreement between Israel and Syria following the 1973 Yom Kippur War.
      • The Yom Kippur War (October 6-24, 1973) was fought between Egypt and Israel (in the Sinai) and Israel and Syria (in the Golan Heights).
    • It operates in the Golan Heights, a region of strategic importance and long-standing contention.
    • The UNSC formally established UNDOF under Resolution 350 to:
    1. Maintain the ceasefire.
    2. Supervise the disengagement of forces.
    3. Monitor the separation zones established by the agreement.
    • UNDOF became operational on June 6, 1974, with an initial deployment of approximately 1,200 personnel.
    • Its mandate is renewed every 6 months by the UNSC, emphasizing its ongoing role in maintaining stability.

    Structural Mandate and Functions

    UNDOF’s core responsibilities include:

    • Ceasefire Maintenance:
      • Monitor and ensure adherence to the ceasefire agreement between Israel and Syria.
    • Supervision of Disengagement:
      • Oversee the withdrawal of forces to their respective areas as per the 1974 Agreement on Disengagement.
    • Monitoring Areas of Separation and Limitation:
      • Area of Separation (AOS):
        • A demilitarized zone controlled by UNDOF, where no military activity is permitted.
        • Approx. 80 km long, ranging from 200 m to 8 km wide.
        • Marked by barrel lines for identification on the ground.
      • Areas of Limitation:
        • Zones on both Israeli and Syrian sides where the number of troops and types of weapons are restricted.

    Functions:

    • Observation and Reporting:
      • Monitor troop movements and ensure no violations of the agreement occur.
      • Regularly report to the UN Secretary-General and the UNSC on ground conditions.
    • Civilian Assistance: Facilitate the return of Syrian civilians to their homes in the AOS under the agreement.
    • Verification of Compliance: Conduct inspections to ensure adherence to restrictions in Areas of Limitation.
    • Confidence-Building Measures: Act as a neutral party to reduce tensions between Israel and Syria.
    • Liaison Services: Maintain open communication channels between Israeli and Syrian forces to prevent misunderstandings or escalation.

    PYQ:

    [2015] The area known as ‘Golan Heights’ sometimes appears in the news in the context of the events is related to:

    (a) Central Asia

    (b) Middle East

    (c) South-East Asia

    (d) Central Africa

  • U.S. and China renew S&T Agreement for further 5 years

    Why in the News?

    Recently, China and the United States agreed to renew the Science and Technology Cooperation Agreement for an additional five years.

    What new measures were added to the Agreement in 2024? 

    • Limited to basic research: The amended agreement explicitly limits cooperation to basic research and excludes any collaboration in critical and emerging technologies.
      • This change aims to mitigate fears that sensitive technologies could be exploited by China for military or competitive advantages.
    • Enhanced Provisions for Researcher Safety: The agreement introduces measures to enhance the safety and security of researchers, ensuring that both parties adhere to standards that protect their respective research environments.
    • Data Reciprocity and Transparency: New provisions have been established to ensure reciprocity and transparency in data sharing between the two countries, addressing previous concerns about intellectual property rights and data misuse.
    • Dispute Resolution Mechanism: A mechanism has been included to resolve disputes should either party fail to adhere to the agreed terms, providing a structured approach to handle potential conflicts arising from collaborative projects.
    • Termination Clause: The agreement includes a clause that allows for the cancellation of proposed projects in cases of “bad faith action,” further safeguarding against potential abuses of the cooperative framework.

    What does this indicate about the evolving relationship between the U.S. and China?

    The renewal and amendment of the STA reflect a complex relationship between the U.S. and China, characterized by both cooperation and competition:

    • Affirmation of Cooperation: The extension signals a commitment from both nations to maintain dialogue and collaboration in scientific fields, despite rising tensions in other areas such as trade and technology.
    • Strategic Guardrails: By implementing new restrictions and guardrails, the U.S. aims to protect its technological edge while still engaging with China in mutually beneficial research areas. This indicates a cautious approach to bilateral relations, balancing cooperation with national security concerns.
    • Political Dynamics: The incoming administration under Donald Trump is expected to endorse this continuation but may impose additional conditions, reflecting ongoing political scrutiny regarding China’s technological advancements.

    How has the U.S. benefited from its collaboration with China under this Agreement?

    • Access to Chinese Research Ecosystem: The agreement has facilitated access for U.S. researchers to China’s burgeoning research environment, allowing for collaborative projects that leverage both countries’ strengths in various scientific fields.
    • Increased R&D Investment: The collaboration has contributed to significant increases in research and development investment from both sides, with China’s R&D spending rising dramatically since the agreement’s inception in 1979.
    • Joint Research Opportunities: The STA has enabled joint research initiatives that have led to advancements in areas such as agriculture, health, environmental science, and more, benefiting both nations through shared knowledge and innovation.
    • Educational Exchanges: The agreement has promoted mobility for students and scientists between the two countries, fostering educational exchanges that enhance understanding and cooperation at multiple levels.

    How will it impact India? 

    • Increased Competition in R&D: The strengthened U.S.-China collaboration, even with restrictions, reinforces China’s position as a global leader in science and technology which intensifies competition for India to keep pace in R&D and innovation.
    • Geopolitical Leverage: India’s strategic partnerships with both the U.S. and other global powers may be recalibrated, as the U.S. balances its rivalry and cooperation with China, potentially affecting India’s diplomatic and technological engagements.
    • Opportunity for Strategic Collaboration: India’s robust bilateral S&T agreements and growing research ecosystem could make it an alternative partner for the U.S. and other nations looking to diversify collaborations away from China, boosting India’s global scientific standing.

    Way forward: 

    • Enhance R&D Capabilities: India should increase investments in research and development, particularly in emerging and critical technologies, to remain competitive globally and bridge the innovation gap with leading nations.
    • Strengthen Strategic Partnerships: India should leverage its scientific and technological collaborations with the U.S. and other like-minded countries to position itself as a reliable partner and alternative to China in the global research ecosystem.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q The USA is facing an existential threat in the form of China, that is much more challenging than the erstwhile Soviet Union.” Explain. (UPSC IAS/2021)

  • National Human Rights Commission (NHRC)

    Why in the News?

    Justice (Retd.) V Ramasubramanian has been appointed as the new chairperson of the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC). Priyank Kanoongo (former NCPCR chief) and Dr. Justice Bidyut Ranjan Sarangi (Retd.) have been appointed as NHRC Members.

    About National Human Rights Commission (NHRC)

    Overview  A Statutory Body formed under the Protection of Human Rights Act (PHRA), 1993.
    Composition and Membership Chairperson: Must be a former Supreme Court Justice or Chief Justice; appointed by the President.

    Members:

    • Four full-time members:
      • 1 ex-SC Judge (Chairperson),
      • 1 ex-SC Judge,
      • 1 ex-Chief Justice of a High Court,
      • 1 with knowledge/experience in human rights.
      • At least one woman among the members.
    • Seven ex-officio members: Chairpersons of National Commissions (e.g., SC/ST, Women, Minorities, etc.) + Chief Commissioner for Persons with Disabilities.

    Appointment Process:

    • The President appoints based on a recommendation committee (PM, Speaker of Lok Sabha, Home Minister, Leaders of Opposition, etc.).
    • Judicial appointments: Consultation with the Chief Justice of India.
    • Removal: By an order of the President, after consultation with the Supreme Court.

    Terms of Office:

    • 3-year term or until the age of 70.
    • Eligible for reappointment, but not for other government jobs.
    • Salaries: Determined by the Central Government.
    • Reporting: Submits reports to the Centre and concerned states; these are tabled before legislatures with an action-taken report.

    Limitations:

    • No inquiry after one year from the alleged violation.
    • Functions are recommendatory; no direct power to punish or award relief.
    • Limited role in armed forces cases.
    Powers and Functions Functions:

    • Inquire into alleged human rights violations.
    • Recommend interim relief to victims or families.
    • Intervene in court proceedings on human rights matters.
    • Review constitutional/legal safeguards for human rights.
    • Study international human rights instruments.
    • Promote human rights literacy.
    • Support NGOs in human rights work.

    Powers:

    • Can regulate its own procedure.
    • Has all powers of a civil court, with judicial character.

     

    PYQ:

    [2020] Other than the Fundamental Rights, which of the following parts of the Constitution of India reflect/reflects the principles and provisions of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)?

    1. Preamble
    2. Directive Principles of State Policy
    3. Fundamental Duties

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 and 2 only
    (b) 2 only
    (c) 1 and 3 only
    (d) 1, 2 and 3

    [2021] Though the Human Rights Commissions have contributed immensely to the protection of human rights in India, yet they have failed to assert themselves against the mighty and powerful. Analysing their structural and practical limitations, suggest remedial measures.

  • Govt to issue over 5.8 million SVAMITVA Property Cards

    Why in the News?

    Over 58 lakh property cards will be issued to owners in approximately 50,000 villages across 12 States/UTs through a virtual event addressed by PM Modi under the SVAMITVA Scheme.

    About SVAMITVA Scheme:

    Details
    About
    • Full Form: Survey of Villages and Mapping with Improvised Technology in Village Areas.
    • Launched on 24th April 2020 (National Panchayati Raj Day) by the Ministry of Panchayati Raj.
    • Objective: Provide an integrated property validation solution for rural India, issuing Record of Rights to households in inhabited rural areas (village abadi areas).
    • Central Sector Scheme: Fully funded by the Central Government, implemented in collaboration with States/UTs and the Survey of India.

    Primary Goals:
    1. Demarcation of inhabited areas using drone technology.
    2. Creation of property cards (Record of Rights).
    3. Formalizing ownership to reduce disputes and enable financial asset use.
    Structural Mandate Implementing Agencies:

    • Ministry of Panchayati Raj at the national level.
    • State Revenue Department/Land Records Department at the state level.
    • Survey of India (as the technology partner).

    Coverage:

    • The scheme is being implemented in phases from 2020-2024.
    • Initially covered 6.62 lakh villages in Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Karnataka, including a few border villages of Punjab and Rajasthan.
    • West Bengal, Bihar, Nagaland, and Meghalaya have not joined the scheme yet.
    • Nomenclature: Title Deed in Haryana, Rural Property Ownership Records (RPOR) in Karnataka, Adhikar Abhilekh in Madhya Pradesh, Sannad in Maharashtra, Svamitva Abhilekh in Uttarakhand, and Gharauni in Uttar Pradesh.
    Key Features and Significance
    • Use of Drone Survey Technology: Drones capture high-resolution images for accurate mapping of village abadi lands.
    • Issuance of Property Cards: Known by various names (e.g., ‘Gharauni’ in UP). Serves as legal proof of ownership.
    • Phased Implementation (2020–2024): Began in select states (UP, Haryana, Maharashtra, MP, Uttarakhand, Karnataka, plus border villages in Punjab/Rajasthan), expanding nationwide.
    • Continuous Operating Reference System (CORS): Network stations for precise drone-based surveys in pilot-phase states.
    • Stakeholder Collaboration: Ministry of Panchayati Raj, State Revenue/Land Records Depts, Survey of India, etc.
    Progress Made So Far
    • Drone Surveys & Mapping: 92% of targeted drone mapping completed across 3.17 lakh villages; full targets likely by 2026.
    • Issuance of Property Cards: Over 2.19 crore property cards finalized; latest distribution covered 58 lakh cards in 50,000 villages across 12 States/UTs.
    • Phased Rollout: Successful pilots led to larger-scale implementation.
    • Collaborative Efforts: Coordination among Panchayati Raj Ministry, Survey of India, and state-level agencies; financial support from the Centre.
    • Recognition of Success: Regarded as a landmark initiative for minimizing litigation, enhancing rural governance, and clarifying property rights.

     

    PYQ:

    [2019] With reference to land reforms in independent India, which one of the following statements is correct?

    (a) The ceiling laws were aimed at family holdings and not individual holdings.

    (b) The major aim of land reforms was providing agricultural land to all the landless.

    (c) It resulted in cultivation of cash crops as a predominant form of cultivation.

    (d) Land reforms permitted no exemptions to the ceiling limits.