💥Join UPSC 2027,2028 Mentorship (July Batch) + XFactor Notes & Microthemes PDF
Talk to Mentor

Civilsdaily

Login

GS Paper: GS2

  • Pax Silica and Global Tech Supply Chains

    Why in the News?

    On 12 December 2025, the United States convened the inaugural Pax Silica Summit to secure Rare Earth Elements (REEs) and strengthen semiconductor and AI supply chains amid rising geopolitical competition.

    What is Pax Silica?

    • A strategic initiative to secure supply chains for semiconductors, AI, and critical minerals
    • Pax means peace and Silica refers to a key material in chip manufacturing
    • Aims to promote peace, prosperity, and trusted digital infrastructure

    Current Status of India

    • India not invited to inaugural summit
    • US Ambassador Sergio Gor announced India will be invited soon

    Why did the U.S. launch Pax Silica amid changing geopolitical realities?

    • Strategic Dependence: The U.S. sought to reduce over reliance on China for Rare Earth Elements and critical inputs essential for advanced technologies and defence. Eg China suspended REE exports to the U.S. during tariff escalations, revealing supply chain vulnerabilities.
    • Weaponisation of Trade: Critical minerals and technologies are increasingly used as tools of geopolitical coercion rather than neutral market goods. Eg China imposed strict licensing and end use restrictions on rare earth magnet exports to India, including bans on defence use.
    • Tech National Security: Semiconductors and AI are now core to economic strength, military capability, and strategic dominance. Eg Shortages of advanced chips during the COVID period disrupted U.S. defence production and AI driven industries.
    • Supply Chain Resilience: The U.S. aims to shift from cost efficiency driven globalisation to resilience driven and trusted supply chains. Eg Pax Silica links Australia’s lithium resources, Japan’s manufacturing strength, and the Netherlands’ lithography technology.

    What value can India add to Pax Silica despite ecosystem gaps?

    • Human Capital: India contributes a large, skilled workforce, strong STEM education base, and growing AI and semiconductor talent, which can support scaling of advanced technologies. Eg Return of U.S. trained Indian engineers due to visa constraints is strengthening India’s domestic AI and chip ecosystem.
    • Market Scale: India offers a fast growing digital economy, large consumer base, and rising AI adoption, making it a critical demand centre for next generation technologies.  
    • Trusted Partnerships: India has proven technology collaboration capacity, supply chain integration experience, and status as a strategic partner rather than a coercive actor. Eg Micron’s semiconductor investment in India and Tata Group’s entry into chip manufacturing demonstrate trusted industrial cooperation.

    How might Pax Silica affect India’s strategic autonomy and policy space?

    • Strategic Autonomy: Joining Pax Silica may increase pressure on India to align more closely with U.S. and its allies, even when India prefers to take independent positions. Eg India may choose not to fully support strict security or sanction policies that do not suit its national interests.
    • Policy Freedom: India will want to keep the freedom to support its own industries through subsidies and government support, which some Pax Silica countries may question. Eg India may continue giving financial support to local chip companies under the Semiconductor Mission, even if partners prefer open markets.
    • Regulatory Control: Common rules under Pax Silica could limit India’s flexibility to work with other countries outside the group.

    Way forward:

    • Calibrated Engagement: India should participate selectively and pragmatically, focusing on technology access and supply chain resilience while avoiding rigid security commitments.
    • Protect Policy Space: India must clearly defend its right to support domestic industries through subsidies, procurement, and phased localisation. Eg Continue incentives under the India Semiconductor Mission while aligning gradually with global standards.
    • Leverage Multi Alignment: India should use Pax Silica to diversify supply chains, not replace existing partnerships, maintaining strategic balance.
    [2012] Recently there has been a concern over the short supply of a group of elements called rare earth metals. Why? 

    1. China, which is the largest producer of these elements, has imposed some restrictions on their export. 

    2. Other than China, Australia, Canada, Chile, these elements are not found in any country. 

    3. Rare earth metals are essential for the manufacture of various kinds of electronic items and there is growing demand for these elements. 

    Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • US Exit from World Health Organization

    Why in the News?

    On 23 January 2026, the United States formally withdrew from the World Health Organization after Donald Trump restarted the exit process at the beginning of his second term.

    Background

    • US announced withdrawal on Day 1 of Trump’s second term in 2025 through an executive order
    • Decision based on allegations that WHO failed in handling COVID 19
    • US confirmed it will not rejoin or participate even as an observer

    Financial Dimension

    • US was WHO’s largest single contributor
    • Outstanding unpaid dues around 260 million dollars
    • All US funding to WHO has been stopped
    • Under US law, one year notice is required, but payment obligation is legally disputed

    WHO’s Response

    • WHO Director General Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus urged the US to reconsider
    • Warned of global public health fallout
    • WHO may cut up to 25 percent of its workforce due to funding gap
    [2022] In the context of WHO Air Quality Guidelines, Consider the following statements: 

    1. The 24-hour mean of PM 2.5 should not exceed 15 μg/m³ and annual mean of PM 2.5 should not exceed 5 μg/m³

    2. In a year, the highest levels of ozone pollution occur during the periods of inclement weather

    3. PM 10 can penetrate the long barrier and enter the bloodstream

    4. Excessive ozone in the air can trigger asthma

    Which of the statements given above are correct? 

    (a) 1, 3 and 4 (b) 1 and 4 only (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 2 only

  • National Legislative Index (NLI)

    Why in the News?

    At the 86th All India Presiding Officers Conference, Om Birla, Speaker of Lok Sabha, announced the initiation of the National Legislative Index (NLI).

    What is National Legislative Index (NLI)?

    • Proposed performance evaluation framework
    • Objectively measures and compares the functioning of Parliament of India and State Legislatures
    • Uses predefined indicators and data driven metrics

    Examples of Predefined Indicators for NLI

    Legislative functioning: Number of sittings held, Duration of sittings, Percentage utilisation of House time and Adjournments and disruption.

    Aim

    • Healthy competition among legislatures
    • Improved efficiency and accountability
    • Better quality of legislative deliberation
    • People centric and outcome oriented law making

    Key Features

    • Objective performance metrics: Number of sittings, legislative output, committee work, utilisation of House time
    • Comparative and competitive framework: Cross comparison of Parliament and State Legislatures. Best practice sharing
    • Transparency and accountability focus: Public scrutiny, discipline, quality debate, citizen centric legislation

    Significance

    • Discourages disruptions and frequent adjournments
    • Improves deliberative quality of legislatures
    • Reinforces legislatures as core pillars of constitutional democracy
    • Aligns institutional performance with long term national development goals
    • Promotes efficient and outcome oriented governance
    [2017] The Parliament of India exercises control over the functions of the Council of Ministers through: 

    1. Adjournment motion 

    2. Question hour 

    3. Supplementary questions 

    Select the correct answer using the code given below: 

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • Ocean Governance – UNCLOS, ISA, High Seas Teaty, etc.

  • Trump launches Board of Peace

    Why in the news?

    The United States has launched a new Board of Peace initiative at the World Economic Forum in Davos, projecting it as a global peace-making body that could rival or even replace the United Nations in the long term.The move is significant because many traditional U.S. allies declined participation, revealing skepticism about its mandate and legitimacy.

    What is the Board of Peace?

    Origin and Initial Mandate

    1. Conceptualisation: Conceived by Donald Trump as part of the second phase of a U.S.-brokered 20-point Gaza ceasefire plan announced in September.
    2. Original Scope: Oversight of demilitarisation, reconstruction, and governance of the Gaza Strip, following devastation caused by Israel’s two-year war.
    3. International Backing: Received formal legitimacy when the United Nations Security Council endorsed the ceasefire plan in November.

    Mandate Expansion and Charter Design

    1. Mandate Expansion: Expanded from a Gaza-specific reconstruction body to a global institution addressing conflicts worldwide.
    2. Charter Language: Defines the Board as an “international organization” promoting stability, peace, and governance in areas affected or threatened by conflict.
    3. Notable Omission: The draft charter circulated with invitations does not reference Gaza, despite Gaza being the original trigger.

    Leadership and Governance Structure

    1. Chairmanship: Trump designated as indefinite chairman, potentially extending beyond his second presidential term.
    2. Institutional Hierarchy: Board positioned above a Founding Executive Board.
    3. Executive Composition: Includes Jared Kushner, Marco Rubio, Steve Witkoff, andTony Blair, indicating executive-driven rather than multilateral governance.

    Membership Model and Access Rules

    1. Term Structure: Standard membership for three-year terms.
    2. Permanent Seats: Available upon payment of USD 1 billion to a peace-building fund.
    3. Governance Implication: Introduces a financial criterion for institutional permanence, distinct from norm-based multilateral systems.

    Why is participation in the Board of Peace contested?

    1. Limited Attendance: Heads of state or senior officials from only 19 countries, plus the U.S., were physically present.
    2. Ally Skepticism: Several close U.S. allies opted out due to uncertainty over mandate, authority, and overlap with existing institutions.
    3. Legislative Constraints: Some countries indicated interest but require parliamentary approval before formal participation.

    How does the Board of Peace relate to the United Nations?

    1. Institutional Overlap: The Board’s functions closely resemble UN peacekeeping and mediation roles.
    2. U.S. Positioning: The President indicated cooperation with the UN while simultaneously questioning its effectiveness.
    3. Long-term Implication: The Board was described as potentially making the UN obsolete, signaling a challenge to the post-1945 multilateral order.

    What role does the Gaza conflict play in this initiative?

    1. Ceasefire Focus: The Board was presented as a mechanism to manage and sustain ceasefires, with Gaza cited as a test case.
    2. Border Opening: Announcement that the Rafah crossing would reopen in both directions after Israeli approval.
    3. Governance Proposal: Oversight of Gaza by a Palestinian committee under U.S. supervision was mentioned as part of post-conflict planning.

    How have major global powers responded?

    1. Russia’s Position: Indicated ongoing consultations and refrained from immediate commitment.
    2. Engagement with Palestine: Russia hosted Palestinian leadership, highlighting parallel diplomatic tracks.
    3. Global Fragmentation: Divergent responses reflect declining consensus on U.S.-led peace initiatives.

    Conclusion

    The launch of the Board of Peace reflects dissatisfaction with existing global peace mechanisms and highlights the limits of unilateral institution-building. The gap between claimed support and actual participation raises questions about its legitimacy and effectiveness, even as ongoing conflicts like Gaza underline the urgency of peace efforts.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2024] Terrorism has become a significant threat to global peace and security’. Evaluate the effectiveness of the United Nations Security Council’s Counter-Terrorism Committee (CTC) and its associated bodies in addressing and mitigating this threat at the international level.

    Linkage: The question tests how far UN bodies like the Security Council and its counter-terrorism mechanisms have been effective in maintaining global peace and security. The Board of Peace has been launched because existing UN mechanisms are seen as slow and ineffective.

  • Prior Sanction for Corruption Investigations | Section 17A of PCA, 1988

    Why in the News?

    A two judge Bench of the Supreme Court of India has delivered a split verdict on the constitutional validity of Section 17A of the Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988, which mandates prior government approval before investigation against public servants for decisions taken in official capacity.

    What is the Current Split Verdict?

    • Justice K V Viswanathan
        • Upheld Section 17A conditionally
        • Held prior approval is needed to protect honest officers
        • Said approval must come from an independent authority
        • Linked Section 17A with Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013
        • Approval to be based on binding opinion of Lokpal for Centre and Lokayukta for States.
    • Justice B V Nagarathna
      • Held Section 17A unconstitutional
      • Called it “old wine in new bottle”
      • Violates Article 14
      • No rational nexus or intelligible differentia
      • Protection already exists under Section 19 which requires sanction before prosecution

    What is the Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988?

    • Enacted to consolidate laws on corruption among public servants
    • Originated from recommendations of the Santhanam Committee (1962)
    • Covers offences such as
      • Bribery
      • Criminal misconduct
      • Undue advantage
    • Applies to public servants, including government officials, judges, and local authority employees

    What is Section 17A of PCA?

    • Inserted through 2018 amendment
    • Requires prior approval of the appropriate government before
      • Inquiry or
      • Investigation
    • Applicable when alleged offence relates to
      • A recommendation made or
      • A decision taken by a public servant while discharging official duties

    Rationale Behind Section 17A

    • To protect honest officers from
      • Frivolous
      • Vexatious complaints
    • Intended to prevent decision making paralysis or “play it safe” behaviour in bureaucracy
    • Distinguishes between
      • Good faith administrative decisions
      • Intentional corruption

    Earlier Supreme Court Rulings

    • Vineet Narain vs Union of India (1998)
        • Struck down the CBI’s Single Directive
        • Held that prior sanction for investigation violates rule of law
    • Dr Subramaniam Swamy vs Director, CBI (2014)
      • Struck down Section 6A of DSPE Act
      • Required prior approval for probing senior officers
      • Declared violative of Article 14 (equality before law)
    [2025] Consider the following statements about Lokpal: 

    I. The power of Lokpal applies to public servants of India, but not to the Indian public servants posted outside India. 

    II. The Chairperson or a Member shall not be a Member of the Parliament or a Member of the Legislature of any State or Union Territory, and only the Chief Justice of India, whether incumbent or retired, has to be its Chairperson. 

    III. The Chairperson or a Member shall not be a person of less than forty-five years of age on the date of assuming office. 

    IV. Lokpal cannot inquire into the allegations of corruption against a sitting Prime Minister of India. 

    Which of the statements given above is/ are correct? 

    (a) III only (b) II and III (c) I and IV (d) None of the above statements is correct

  • Spain joins Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI)

    Why in the News?

    Spain has formally joined the Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative, with Spain’s Foreign Minister handing over the Declaration of Accession to S. Jaishankar.

    What is the Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI)?

    • A non-treaty, voluntary, cooperative framework for maritime cooperation
    • Focused on practical collaboration, not military alliances
    • Applicable to like-minded countries in the Indo-Pacific region

    Aim of IPOI

    • Promote a free, open, inclusive, and rules-based Indo-Pacific
    • Address maritime challenges through cooperation and capacity building
    • Balance security, development, and sustainability in maritime domains

    Significance of Spain’s Accession

    • Enhances global and European legitimacy of IPOI
    • Reflects growing Europe Indo-Pacific engagement
    • Strengthens India’s role as a net security provider and agenda-setter
    • Promotes inclusive multilateralism amid rising great power rivalry

    Prelims Pointers

    • IPOI is not a treaty or alliance
    • It is India-led, unlike QUAD which is minilateral
    • Focuses on oceans governance, not territorial disputes
    • Countries participate based on voluntary pillar leadership
    [2017] Consider the following in respect of Indian Ocean Naval Symposium (IONS): 

    1. Inaugural IONS was held in India in 2015 under the chairmanship of the Indian Navy

    2. IONS is a voluntary initiative that seeks to increase maritime co-operation among navies of the littoral states of the Indian Ocean Region

    Which of the above statements is/are correct? 

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

  • [22nd January 2026] The Hindu OpED: Judicial removal, tough law with a loophole

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2023]  “Constitutionally guaranteed judicial independence is a prerequisite of democracy.” Comment.

    Linkage: This issue lies at the core of GS Paper II (Separation of Powers and Judiciary), examining how constitutional safeguards protect judicial independence while ensuring accountability. The article on judicial removal highlights that procedural loopholes in impeachment weaken accountability.

    Mentor’s Comment

    Judicial independence and accountability are equally important under the Constitution. The impeachment process was meant to protect judges from political pressure while allowing removal in cases of proven misconduct. Recent events, however, show a clear gap between law and practice. Discretion given to the Speaker or Chairman has created a loophole that can block the removal of even an erring judge.

    Why in the News?

    In December 2025, Lok Sabha MPs submitted a notice to remove a High Court judge for misconduct. Although the required number of signatures was met, the process stalled because the Speaker can admit or reject the motion. This reflects a long-standing institutional failure: no judge has ever been removed through impeachment despite repeated allegations. The episode shows how a constitutionally strict removal process can be blocked at the initial procedural stage itself.

    What is the constitutional framework for removal of judges?

    1. Constitutional Basis: Articles 124(4) and 217 mandate removal only through a special majority of Parliament on grounds of proven misbehaviour or incapacity.
    2. Procedural Authority: Article 124(5) empowers Parliament to legislate procedures for investigation and presentation of an address to the President.
    3. Statutory Instrument: The Judges (Inquiry) Act, 1968 operationalises this power by prescribing inquiry procedures and thresholds.
    4. High Threshold: Removal requires a majority of total membership and two-thirds of members present and voting in each House.

    How does the Judges (Inquiry) Act structure the removal process?

    1. Notice Requirement: Admission of a motion requires signatures of 100 Lok Sabha MPs or 50 Rajya Sabha MPs.
    2. Speaker/Chairman’s Role: The Presiding Officer may either admit or refuse to admit the motion.
    3. Inquiry Committee: Upon admission, a three-member committee (Supreme Court judge, Chief Justice of a High Court, and a distinguished jurist) investigates charges.
    4. Final Stage: Only after a finding of guilt does Parliament vote on the motion for removal.

    Where does the procedural loophole arise?

    1. Statutory Discretion: The Act empowers the Speaker/Chairman to reject a motion without prescribing objective criteria.
    2. Absence of Reasons: No mandatory requirement exists to record or disclose reasons for refusal.
    3. Non-Justiciability: The admission stage is treated as part of parliamentary procedure, limiting judicial review.
    4. Gatekeeping Power: Rejection at this stage prevents inquiry, evidence collection, and parliamentary debate.

    Why is this discretion constitutionally problematic?

    1. Erosion of Accountability: Proven misconduct cannot be examined if inquiry is blocked at inception.
    2. Separation of Powers Concern: A political office-holder effectively determines whether judicial misconduct is investigated.
    3. Arbitrariness Risk: Absence of standards allows inconsistent or selective application.
    4. Institutional Contradiction: Parliament’s power to regulate procedure undermines its own constitutional duty to act on misbehaviour.

    Has impeachment ever succeeded in India?

    1. Historical Record: No judge has been removed through impeachment since independence.
    2. Failed Attempts: Multiple motions have lapsed or been withdrawn due to resignation or procedural deadlock.
    3. Pattern: Political reluctance combined with procedural discretion has ensured institutional inertia.
    4. Outcome: The removal mechanism exists in form but not in effect.

    Conclusion

    Judicial independence is vital for democracy, but it cannot exist without credible accountability. The current removal framework, though constitutionally stringent, is weakened by discretionary gatekeeping at the admission stage. This procedural gap allows serious allegations to go unexamined, undermining public trust in constitutional institutions. Strengthening objectivity and transparency in the removal process is therefore essential to preserve both judicial integrity and democratic balance.

  • Building bridges: On Central Bank Digital Currency and BRICS

    Why in the News

    The RBI has suggested that India propose linking BRICS countries’ Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC) at the 2026 BRICS Summit in India. This signals a shift from limited domestic use of CBDC towards cross-border payments, especially after India’s G20 presidency in 2023 emphasised digital finance cooperation. The move contrasts with India’s successful UPI system and reflects a strategic choice rather than a technological need.

    Central Bank Digital Currency:

    1. It is a digital form of a country’s fiat currency.
    2. It is issued and backed by the central bank
    3. Example: India’s RBI with the Digital Rupee/e₹ that offers the trust of physical cash with digital convenience

    Key Characteristics

    1. Digital Legal Tender: It’s official money in digital form, exchangeable 1:1 with physical cash.
    2. Issued by Central Bank: Directly backed by the central bank, ensuring safety and finality of settlement, unlike private cryptocurrencies.
    3. Digital Wallet: Stored and transacted through a digital wallet on your phone or device.
    4. Retail (CBDC-R) & Wholesale (CBDC-W): Retail is for the public (P2P/P2M), while Wholesale is for specific financial institutions.

    Why Is India Exploring Cross-Border CBDC Linkages?

    1. Limited domestic utility: Reduces relevance of CBDC within India due to UPI’s scale and efficiency.
    2. International payments focus: Repositions CBDC as a tool for cross-border settlements rather than retail payments.
    3. Institutional continuity: Builds upon India’s G20 2023 agenda on crypto and digital payment standardisation.

    How Does RBI’s CBDC Approach Differ from Private Cryptocurrencies?

    1. Sovereign guarantee: Ensures safety and trust absent in private cryptocurrencies.
    2. Non-interest bearing nature: Prevents speculative investment behaviour.
    3. Blockchain utility: Retains advantages of distributed ledger technology without exposure to volatility and fraud.
    4. Regulatory clarity: Enables oversight absent in decentralised crypto systems.

    What Problems in Cross-Border Payments Does CBDC Address?

    1. Transparency deficit: Addresses opacity in international money flows.
    2. Black and laundered money: Creates immutable transaction records.
    3. Traceability: Enables coding of origin and destination points.
    4. Institutional linkage: Allows integration with national identity systems or tax authorities.

    Why Is BRICS a Strategic Platform for CBDC Payments?

    1. Shared constraints: Includes countries facing restricted access to SWIFT.
    2. Payments to sanctioned states: Facilitates transactions with Russia and Iran.
    3. Infrastructure autonomy: Reduces dependence on dollar-centric payment systems.
    4. Mandated compliance: Enables collective rules on identification and reporting.

    What Are the Geopolitical Risks?

    1. Dollar displacement: Triggers strategic concern from the United States.
    2. Tariff retaliation: Faces threat of additional tariffs from the U.S.
    3. Political signalling: Risks being perceived as a challenge to dollar dominance.
    4. Cost-benefit dilemma: Requires evaluation of marginal tariff impact given existing high tariffs.

    What Makes Blockchain Suitable for Cross-Border CBDCs?

    1. Immutable records: Prevents tampering with transaction history.
    2. Programmability: Enables conditional compliance requirements
    3. Auditability: Facilitates regulatory monitoring across jurisdictions.
    4. Efficiency: Reduces friction in settlement mechanisms.

    Challenges Associated with CBDCs

    1. Interoperability: Requires harmonisation of legal and technical standards.
    2. Cybersecurity: Increases exposure to systemic digital risks.
    3. Data governance: Raises concerns over cross-border data sharing.
    4. Geopolitical pushback: Triggers resistance from dollar-centric systems.

    Conclusion:

    India’s push for cross-border CBDC linkages reflects a pragmatic recalibration of its digital finance strategy. With domestic payments efficiently handled by UPI, CBDCs are being repositioned to address gaps in cross-border settlements, transparency, and geopolitical resilience. The success of this approach will depend on interoperability, data governance, and careful management of geopolitical risks while preserving monetary sovereignty.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2023] What is the status of digitalization in the Indian economy? Examine the problems faced in this regard and suggest improvements.

    Linkage: The question tests India’s progress in building a digital economy, with emphasis on digital payments. The article shows how UPI’s success limits domestic CBDC use, pushing India to focus on cross-border digital payments instead.

  • Internet Governance Capacity Building Programme

    Why in the News

    India marked one year of the Internet Governance Internship and Capacity Building Scheme (IGICBS), highlighting its role in preparing young professionals to engage effectively in national and global internet governance forums and represent India’s interests.

    Key Institutions Involved

    • National Internet Exchange of India
    • Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology

    About IGICBS

    • A first of its kind capacity building initiative launched in 2024
    • Aims to build human capital in internet governance
    • Targets students and young professionals from Technology, Law, and Public policy.
    • Combines expert led learning, mentorship and internships
    • Bridges policy, technology and academia

    Key Achievements in One Year

    • 10,000 plus participants trained and engaged
    • Creation of a national pipeline of internet governance professionals
    • Strengthened India’s presence in global standards and technical forums
    • Increased youth participation in multi stakeholder internet governance processes

    Strategic Significance

    • Enhances India’s role in global internet governance
    • Supports a secure, inclusive and resilient digital ecosystem
    • Aligns with India’s vision of knowledge led digital governance
    • Builds capacity for engagement in forums such as global internet governance discussions and technical standard bodies

    Prelims Pointers

    • IGICBS is a capacity building and internship programme, not a regulatory body
    • Implemented by NIXI under MeitY
    • Focuses on internet governance, not just coding or IT skills
    • Emphasises youth participation and global engagement
    • Example of soft power through digital leadership
    [2017] In India, it is legally mandatory for which of the following to report on cyber security incidents? 

    1. Service providers 

    2. Data Centres 

    3. Body corporate 

    Select the correct answer using the code given below: 

    (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3