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GS Paper: GS3

  • AI’s impact on labour market: Anthropic’s report flags high exposure 

    Why in the News?

    Artificial Intelligence is increasingly reshaping labour markets worldwide. A recent report by Anthropic shows that jobs involving digital tasks, cognitive work, and routine analysis face higher automation risks due to large language models (LLMs). This shift has implications for skills, education, and employment policies, especially for countries like India, where millions work in IT, services, and BPO sectors.

    What does the Anthropic report reveal about AI exposure in labour markets?
    The Anthropic report marks one of the first systematic attempts to measure real-world labour market exposure to AI rather than relying only on theoretical predictions.

    1. New Measurement Metric- “Observed Exposure”: Introduces a framework combining LLM technical capabilities with real-world usage data from Claude AI systems, enabling more accurate estimation of AI’s impact on jobs.
    2. High Exposure in Digital Occupations: Identifies sectors such as business and finance, management, computer science, engineering, legal services, and office administration as highly exposed to AI-driven automation.
    3. Striking Capability Statistic: Finds that LLMs are theoretically capable of performing up to 94% of tasks performed by computer and mathematics workers.
    4. Real Adoption Gap: Notes that despite this capability, Claude currently performs only about 33% of such tasks, indicating that technological potential exceeds current adoption.
    5. Declining Hiring Trends: Observes a 14% decline in hiring for younger professionals (22-25 years) in highly exposed occupations.
    6. Gender Dimension: Highlights that women constitute 54.4% of high-exposure roles compared to 38.8% of low-exposure roles, indicating potential gendered labour market impacts.
    7. Indian Context: A NITI Aayog report titled “Roadmap for Job Creation in the AI Economy” warns that over 60% of formal-sector jobs, particularly in IT services and BPO sectors employing over 6 million people, could face automation risks by 2030.

    How does the report measure AI exposure in the labour market?

    1. Observed Exposure Metric: Measures the extent to which AI is actually used in real work tasks by analysing usage patterns of Anthropic’s Claude AI model.
    2. Combination Approach: Integrates theoretical capability of LLMs with empirical usage data, creating a realistic understanding of labour market disruption.
    3. Correlation with Job Trends: Tests exposure levels against US government employment projections and unemployment survey data to identify links between AI exposure and labour market trends.
    4. Evidence-Based Findings: Establishes that higher AI exposure correlates with weaker job growth and rising job losses in certain occupations.

    Which sectors face the highest AI disruption risks?

    1. Business and Finance: AI systems can perform financial analysis, data interpretation, and report generation, increasing automation potential in financial services.
    2. Management Occupations: AI supports strategic planning, data analytics, and decision-support tools, reducing reliance on routine managerial tasks.
    3. Computer and Mathematical Jobs: LLMs show the highest capability in coding, debugging, and software documentation tasks, with theoretical capability covering 94% of such tasks.
    4. Legal Sector: AI assists in contract analysis, legal research, and document drafting, increasing exposure in legal professions.
    5. Office and Administrative Work: Routine administrative functions such as documentation, scheduling, and record management are highly susceptible to automation.

    Why are digital and knowledge-sector jobs more vulnerable than manual jobs?

    1. Digitisation of Work: Tasks performed in digital environments are easier for AI systems to replicate using algorithms and machine learning models.
    2. Routine Cognitive Tasks: AI excels in pattern recognition, data processing, and repetitive analytical tasks.
    3. Physical Constraints: Manual occupations involving physical movement, craftsmanship, or real-world interaction remain difficult for AI systems to automate.
    4. Lower AI Applicability in Manual Sectors: Industries such as construction, agriculture, protective services, and personal care show relatively lower AI exposure.

    How could AI affect employment patterns and demographics?

    1. Impact on Young Workers: Hiring in highly exposed occupations for workers aged 22-25 years has declined by 14%, suggesting reduced entry-level opportunities.
    2. Gender Disparity: Women represent 54.4% of high-exposure jobs, indicating disproportionate vulnerability in AI-driven labour market changes.
    3. Highly Educated Workforce Exposure: AI disruption is concentrated in graduate-level occupations, highlighting risks for knowledge workers rather than low-skilled labour.
    4. Occupational Polarisation: AI may lead to growth in high-skill innovation roles and low-skill manual jobs, while shrinking middle-skill occupations.

    What implications does AI disruption have for India?

    1. IT and BPO Sector Risks: Over 60% of formal-sector jobs in IT services and BPO industries may face automation pressures by 2030.
    2. Employment Scale: These sectors currently employ over 6 million people in India, making AI disruption economically significant.
    3. Stock Market Response: Shares of TCS, Wipro, and Infosys declined nearly 20% over the past year, reflecting investor concerns about AI-driven automation.
    4. Skill Gap Challenge: Limited mathematical and scientific skill levels among large segments of the population could hinder adaptation to AI-driven economies.
    5. Low R&D Investment: India’s low spending on research and development compared to the US and China reduces its capacity to lead in AI innovation.

    Can AI also create opportunities in traditional sectors?

    1. Precision Agriculture: AI-enabled analysis of satellite imagery, weather forecasts, soil data, and crop patterns enables farmers to optimise sowing and harvesting decisions.
    2. Agricultural Risk Reduction: AI systems provide early warnings about pests and diseases, improving crop protection.
    3. Resource Optimisation: AI helps farmers determine fertiliser use, irrigation requirements, and input efficiency.
    4. Policy Initiatives: The Union Budget 2026–27 proposed the Bharat-VISTAAR system (Virtually Integrated System to Access Agricultural Resources) to integrate AgriStack platforms with ICAR research data.

    Conclusion

    Artificial Intelligence is reshaping the nature of work by transforming how tasks are performed rather than simply eliminating jobs. The Anthropic report highlights that occupations involving digital and cognitive tasks face the greatest exposure to AI-driven automation. For India, where millions depend on knowledge-sector employment, the challenge lies in strengthening skills, promoting AI innovation, and ensuring that technological progress complements rather than displaces human labour.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2023] Introduce the concept of Artificial Intelligence (AI). How does AI help clinical diagnosis? Do you perceive any threat to privacy of the individual in the use of AI in healthcare?

    Linkage: This question directly relates to the applications and societal implications of AI, similar to how the article discusses AI transforming labour markets and professional work.

  • Chile Eliminates Leprosy

    Why in the News

    The World Health Organization (WHO) and the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) have officially verified Chile as the first country in the Americas and the second globally to eliminate leprosy as a public health problem.

    Leprosy (Hansen’s Disease)

    • A chronic infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium leprae.
    • Primarily affects:
      • Skin
      • Peripheral nerves
      • Upper respiratory tract mucosa
      • Eyes
    • If untreated, it can cause permanent nerve damage and disability.

    Transmission

    • Spread through respiratory droplets from the nose and mouth of untreated patients.
    • Requires close and prolonged contact.
    • Not highly contagious.

    Incubation Period

    • Very long incubation period.
    • Average: ~5 years, but symptoms may appear up to 20 years later.

    Symptoms

    • Pale or reddish skin patches with loss of sensation
    • Numbness and nerve damage
    • Muscle weakness in hands and feet
    • Painless ulcers on soles of feet
    • Eye damage in severe cases

    Treatment

    • Multi-Drug Therapy (MDT) provided free worldwide by WHO.
    • Combination of medicines:
      • Rifampicin
      • Dapsone
      • Clofazimine
    • 100% curable if treated early.
    • Early treatment prevents disability.
    [2014] Consider the following diseases: Diphtheria  Chickenpox  Smallpox Which of the above diseases has/have been eradicated in India? (a) 1 and 2 only  (b) 3 only  (c) 1, 2 and 3 only  (d) None of the above

  • Farm Loan Waivers Return: Impact on Credit Culture

    Why in the News

    The Maharashtra government has announced a ₹35,000 crore farm loan waiver scheme, raising concerns from economists and the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) about its impact on credit culture and state finances.

    Key Features of the Maharashtra Scheme

    • Total cost: ~₹35,000 crore
    • Beneficiaries: ~30 lakh farmers
      • 20 lakh non-defaulters will receive an ₹50,000 incentive for timely repayment.
    • Cost breakdown:
      • ₹20,000 crore for loan waiver of defaulters
      • ₹15,000 crore incentive for regular borrowers

    Why Governments Announce Farm Loan Waivers

    • Reduce farmers’ debt burden
    • Provide relief during agrarian distress
    • Enable farmers to restart productive investment
      • However, economists argue that such schemes often fail to provide long-term solutions.

    Major Farm Loan Waiver Schemes in India

    National Schemes

    1. Agricultural and Rural Debt Relief Scheme (ARDRS), 1990
      • Covered loans from public sector banks and regional rural banks.
      • Maximum relief ₹10,000 per farmer.
    2. Agricultural Debt Waiver and Debt Relief Scheme (ADWDRS), 2008
      • Covered banks and cooperative credit institutions.
      • Focus on small and marginal farmers (≤5 acres).

    Total spending on waivers in last 35 years: over ₹3 lakh crore.

    Trend Since 2014

    • Farm loan waivers increased significantly after 2014–15.
    • 10 states announced waivers worth about ₹2.4 lakh crore.
    • Many announcements occurred close to elections, according to RBI.

    RBI’s Concerns

    • Weakening of Credit Culture: Farmers may delay repayment expecting future waivers. Creates moral hazard in the credit system.
    • Reduced Agricultural Lending: Banks become reluctant to provide fresh loans.
    • Rise in NPAs: Agricultural sector gross NPAs reached about 8.44% (2019).
    • Fiscal Burden on States: Waiver costs can reach 0.1% to 2% of state GSDP. Payments often spread over 3–5 years, affecting budgets.

  • BEL–Bellatrix Partnership to Develop VLEO Satellite Systems

    Why in the News

    India’s defence PSU Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) and space-tech startup Bellatrix Aerospace have signed an MoU to jointly develop Very Low Earth Orbit (VLEO) satellite systems.

    What is VLEO (Very Low Earth Orbit)?

    • Altitude: About 150 km to 450 km above Earth.
    • Lower than Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites.
    • Satellites experience thin atmospheric drag, requiring propulsion systems to maintain orbit.

    How VLEO Satellites Work

    • At low altitude, satellites face aerodynamic drag from the upper atmosphere.
    • Advanced propulsion systems provide continuous thrust to maintain orbital position.
    • Bellatrix will use electric/green propulsion technologies for station-keeping.

    Key Features of VLEO Systems

    • High-Resolution Imaging: Closer proximity to Earth enables sub-meter imaging using smaller sensors.
    • Ultra-Low Latency Communication: Shorter signal distance enables faster data transmission and real-time communication.
    • Lower Launch Costs: Lower orbit requires less fuel to deploy satellites.
    • Reduced Space Debris: Failed satellites naturally re-enter and burn up due to atmospheric drag.

    Aim of the Partnership

    • Develop indigenous VLEO satellite platforms and payloads.
    • Provide solutions for defence and civilian applications.
    • Combine PSU manufacturing capability with startup innovation.

    Strategic Significance

    • Strengthens India’s self-reliance in space technology.
    • Enables high-resolution surveillance and intelligence gathering.
    • Useful for:
      • Border monitoring
      • Earth observation
      • Real-time communication systems.

    Prelims Pointers

    • Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) operates under the Ministry of Defence.
    • Bellatrix Aerospace develops satellite propulsion systems.
    • VLEO satellites orbit at lower altitude than conventional Earth-observation satellites, offering improved imaging and reduced debris risk.
    [2011] An artificial satellite orbiting around the Earth does not fall down. This is so because the attraction of Earth (a) does not exist at such a distance. (b) is neutralized by the attraction of the moon. (c) provides the necessary speed for its steady motion. (d) provides the necessary acceleration for its motion

  • [7th March 2026] The Hindu OpED: Right, justice, action for India’s women farmers

    PYQ Relevance[UPSC 2024] Distinguish between gender equality, gender equity and women’s empowerment. Why is it important to take gender concerns into account in programme design and implementation?Linkage: The article highlights structural barriers faced by women farmers such as lack of land ownership, credit access, and institutional recognition, demonstrating why gender-sensitive policy design in agriculture and food systems is essential.

    Mentor’s Comment

    International Women’s Day 2026 coincides with the International Year of the Woman Farmer. This places a renewed global attention on the structural exclusion of women from land ownership, agricultural decision-making, and food systems governance. Despite constituting a significant share of the agricultural workforce in India, women farmers remain largely invisible in policy and institutional frameworks. There is a contradiction between women’s central role in food production and their marginal access to land, credit, technology, and nutrition security. Addressing gender inequalities in agriculture is essential for improving food security, nutrition outcomes, and climate-resilient farming systems.

    Why does the issue of women farmers demand urgent attention today?

    1. International recognition: International Women’s Day 2026 aligns with the International Year of the Woman Farmer, emphasising gender equality in global food systems.
    2. Policy-practice gap: Legal reforms providing equal inheritance rights for daughters have not translated into land ownership for women due to social norms and administrative barriers.
    3. Invisible farmers: Women who manage farms and negotiate with labourers often lack legal recognition as farmers, limiting access to credit, crop insurance, irrigation schemes, and extension services.
    4. Structural exclusion: Eligibility for government agricultural schemes remains linked to land ownership, which is largely held by men.
    5. Nutritional paradox: Women who produce food frequently lack diverse and nutritious diets, with rural diets dominated by cereals and limited access to pulses, fruits, vegetables, and animal-source foods.

    How do land ownership patterns restrict women’s participation in agriculture?

    1. Patriarchal inheritance: Land titles remain concentrated in male ownership due to patrilineal inheritance practices.
    2. Administrative barriers: Limited awareness, bureaucratic hurdles, and social resistance prevent women’s names from appearing in land records.
    3. Institutional exclusion: Lack of land titles restricts women’s access to institutional credit, crop insurance, irrigation schemes, and agricultural extension services.
    4. Weak bargaining power: Absence of legal ownership reduces women’s influence in agricultural decision-making and market negotiations.
    5. Asset deprivation: Women farmers often cultivate land without formal ownership, creating vulnerability in cases of displacement, widowhood, or marital conflict.

    Does the feminisation of agriculture translate into empowerment?

    1. Labour shift: Male migration has increased women’s role in cultivation, household food provisioning, and farm management.
    2. Workload intensification: Women experience dual burdens of productive agricultural labour and reproductive household responsibilities.
    3. Limited mechanisation: Lack of access to labour-saving technologies increases drudgery and health risks.
    4. Health consequences: Women with heavy workloads, particularly during peak agricultural seasons, face micronutrient deficiencies and health stress.
    5. Intergenerational effects: Maternal undernutrition contributes to low birth weight and poor child development outcomes.

    Why are nutrition outcomes among women farmers still poor?

    1. Cereal-dominated diets: Rural diets remain focused on rice and wheat, with limited consumption of nutrient-dense foods.
    2. Persistent anaemia: High prevalence of anaemia among women of reproductive age represents a major public health concern.
    3. Intergenerational malnutrition: Maternal undernutrition increases risks of child stunting and developmental deficits.
    4. Food security paradox: Women responsible for producing food often lack control over household nutrition choices.

    How effective are India’s food security programmes in addressing gender inequality?

    1. Food security framework: The National Food Security Act (NFSA) guarantees subsidised cereals and nutritional support for pregnant women and children.
    2. Supplementary nutrition: Nutrition programmes include maternal entitlements and supplementary feeding through Anganwadis.
    3. State innovations: Some states promote millets, fortified staples, and local foods within food distribution systems.
    4. Implementation gaps: Nutrition outcomes remain uneven due to weak programme integration and limited focus on diet diversity.
    5. Digital exclusion: Digitalisation of welfare systems can exclude women with poor connectivity, documentation gaps, or limited digital literacy.

    What structural reforms are required to strengthen women’s agricultural rights?

    1. Land rights reform: Implementation of equal inheritance laws and promotion of joint spousal land titles.
    2. Gender-sensitive governance: Ensuring gender-responsive land registration systems and inclusion of women in resource management institutions.
    3. Collective institutions: Strengthening women’s collectives and self-help groups to improve bargaining power and access to resources.
    4. Policy recognition: Adopting the National Policy for Farmers definition, which recognises farmers based on agricultural activity rather than land ownership.
    5. Data visibility: Generating gender-disaggregated agricultural data to inform policy design.

    How can women farmers drive climate-resilient agriculture and food security?

    1. Technology access: Ensuring access to climate-resilient technologies and agricultural extension services.
    2. Knowledge empowerment: Training women farmers in sustainable farming practices and resource management.
    3. Labour-saving tools: Adoption of drudgery-reducing technologies improves productivity and health outcomes.
    4. Community initiatives: Promotion of kitchen gardens, women’s seed banks, and local food planning.
    5. Institutional support: Strengthening linkages between agriculture, nutrition systems, and social protection programmes.

    Conclusion

    Achieving gender equality in agriculture requires recognition of women as farmers with full rights to land, resources, technology, and decision-making. Strengthening women’s agency in agri-food systems enhances agricultural productivity, improves household nutrition, and strengthens climate resilience. Integrating land reforms, nutrition policies, and institutional support can transform women farmers into central actors of sustainable rural development.

  • Recognizing invisible labour of care is a national priority

    Why in the News

    The issue of recognizing invisible labour of care has gained prominence due to renewed policy focus on women-led development and the care economy in India’s recent budgetary and policy initiatives. This is coinciding with International Women’s Day discussions on gender equity and economic participation. A striking indicator of change is the rise in India’s Female Labour Force Participation Rate (FLFPR) from 23.3% in 2017-18 to 41.7% in 2023-24, highlighting increasing female participation in the workforce. However, this progress coexists with a massive burden of unpaid care work carried primarily by women, which remains outside formal economic accounting. The Union Budget 2026-27 reportedly crossed ₹5 lakh crore under gender budgeting for the first time, reflecting policy recognition of women’s contribution.

    What is the invisible care economy?

    1. It refers to the massive volume of unpaid, uncounted, and undervalued labor; primarily cooking, cleaning, child care, and elder care; performed mostly by women and girls. 
    2. It acts as a “hidden” backbone of society, essential for sustaining the workforce and households but largely absent from GDP, formal economic metrics, and policy discussions.

    Why is the care economy considered the hidden foundation of national development?

    1. Social reproduction: Care work ensures the reproduction of human capital by nurturing children, supporting working adults, and maintaining social well-being.
    2. Economic multiplier: Effective care systems enable women to participate in the workforce, thereby increasing productivity and household incomes.
    3. Cultural dimension: Indian civilisation traditionally reveres Shakti, acknowledging women’s nurturing and leadership roles across social spaces.

    How has India’s policy framework shifted from welfare to women-led development?

    1. Developmental shift: Policies increasingly recognise women not merely as beneficiaries but as drivers of development.
    2. Institutional reforms: Governance frameworks incorporate gender-sensitive policy design across sectors such as health, education, and social welfare.
    3. Political recognition: Women’s contributions are acknowledged in public discourse and development planning.
    4. Leadership emphasis: The idea of women-led development has emerged as a guiding principle in policy discussions.

    What does recent data reveal about women’s workforce participation in India?

    1. FLFPR increase: India’s Female Labour Force Participation Rate rose from 23.3% in 2017-18 to 41.7% in 2023-24, indicating increasing female economic engagement.
    2. Care constraint: Despite rising participation, women continue to shoulder the majority of unpaid domestic responsibilities.
    3. Economic barrier: Lack of accessible childcare and care infrastructure limits women’s sustained participation in the workforce.
    4. Labour productivity: Supporting care services can unlock millions of economic opportunities for women.

    What policy initiatives aim to strengthen India’s care ecosystem?

    1. Gender Budgeting expansion: Gender Budget crossed ₹5 lakh crore for the first time, indicating substantial financial commitment toward women-related programmes.
    2. Caregiver skill development: Initiatives aim to train 1.5 lakh caregivers, strengthening the professional care workforce.
    3. Working women hostels: Expansion of residential facilities supports women migrating for employment.
    4. Anganwadi strengthening: Upgradation of Anganwadi centres improves early childhood care and nutrition services.
    5. Inter-sectoral convergence: Integration of health, nutrition, and childcare services improves social protection.

    How are legal reforms supporting childcare and worker welfare?

    1. Labour law reforms: The Code on Social Security strengthens social protection frameworks.
    2. Workplace welfare: The Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code improves workplace conditions and supports welfare provisions.
    3. Creche facilities: Legal frameworks encourage workplace childcare infrastructure.
    4. Social protection: Labour codes integrate worker welfare and family-support mechanisms.

    Why is the demand for formal care services increasing in India?

    1. Urbanisation: Rapid urban expansion weakens extended family support systems.
    2. Migration: Labour mobility separates families from traditional caregiving networks.
    3. Nuclear households: Smaller families reduce the availability of informal caregivers.
    4. Ageing population: Increasing life expectancy raises the demand for elderly care services.

    What policy measures are essential to strengthen the care economy in India? (Way Forward)

    1. 5R Framework for Care Economy: Adopting the Recognise – Reduce – Redistribute – Reward – Represent framework ensures a comprehensive policy approach.
      1. Recognition through time-use surveys and national accounting; 
      2. Reduction through care infrastructure like childcare centres; 
      3. Redistribution by encouraging shared household responsibilities and state-supported services; 
      4. Reward by ensuring fair wages, training, and social security for care workers;
      5. Representation by including care workers in labour dialogues and policymaking forums.
    2. Recognition through statistical accounting: Institutionalise regular Time Use Surveys and develop satellite accounts in national income accounting to measure the economic value of unpaid domestic and caregiving labour.
    3. Expansion of childcare and care infrastructure: Strengthen Anganwadi centres, promote workplace crèche facilities, and establish community-based childcare and elder-care services to reduce the unpaid care burden on women.
    4. Professionalisation and formalisation of care work: Expand care-sector skilling programmes, certify caregivers, and extend social security benefits to domestic workers, caregivers, and informal care providers.
    5. Learning from global best practices:
      1. Nordic countries (Sweden, Norway): Provide universal childcare services and gender-neutral parental leave, which significantly increases women’s labour force participation.
      2. Canada: Introduced a national affordable childcare programme, reducing childcare costs and enabling greater workforce participation among mothers.
      3. Japan: Expanded public elder-care services under its Long-Term Care Insurance system to address ageing population challenges and reduce family caregiving burdens.

    Conclusion

    Recognising and strengthening the care economy is essential for achieving inclusive and sustainable development in India. Institutional support for caregiving, through childcare infrastructure, social security, and gender-responsive policies, can transform unpaid labour into a recognised pillar of economic growth. A development model that values care work not only empowers women but also strengthens the foundations of a resilient and equitable society.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2021] Though women in post-Independent India have excelled in various fields, the social attitude towards women and feminist movement has been patriarchal.” Apart from women education and women empowerment schemes, what interventions can help change this milieu?

    Linkage: This PYQ directly relates to the care economy, unpaid domestic labour, and gender-responsive policymaking, which are central to recognising women’s invisible work in society and the economy. The article’s focus on gender budgeting, childcare infrastructure, and redistribution of care work aligns with UPSC themes of women empowerment, social justice, and inclusive development.

  • West Asia War May Hit India’s Gem and Jewellery Industry

    Why in the News

    The ongoing conflict involving Iran, Israel and the United States in West Asia is expected to disrupt supply chains and trade for India’s gem and jewellery sector, according to the Gem and Jewellery Export Promotion Council (GJEPC).

    Why the Industry is Vulnerable

    • Heavy Dependence on GCC Region
      • India’s gem and jewellery trade relies strongly on the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries.
      • GCC share in India’s exports increased from 14% in FY22 to about 22% in FY25.
      • During April–December 2025, the share rose to 36%.
    • Major markets include: United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia
    • UAE as a Key Trade Hub
      • The UAE plays a crucial role in India’s jewellery trade.
      • Supplies rough diamonds and bullion to India.
      • Major centre for diamond trade in Dubai.
      • Accounts for a large share of gold bar imports to India.

    Trade Data Highlights

    • India’s gem and jewellery exports to GCC grew from $5.1 billion (FY22) to $8.3 billion (FY25).
    • Imports from GCC rose from $16 billion to $28 billion during the same period.
    • GCC countries supply over 30% of India’s jewellery imports.
    [2016] Which of the following is not a member of ‘Gulf Cooperation Council’? 
    (a) Iran 
    (b) Saudi Arabia 
    (c) Oman 
    (d) Kuwait

  • Centre Directs Refiners to Maximise LPG Production

    Why in the News

    The Government of India invoked the Essential Commodities Act, 1955 to direct oil refiners to maximise production of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) and prioritise domestic cooking gas supply amid disruptions in global energy supply chains.

    About Essential Commodities Act, 1955 (ECA)The Essential Commodities Act, 1955 (ECA) is a law enacted by the Government of India to ensure the availability of essential goods to consumers at fair prices and prevent hoarding, black marketing, and artificial scarcity.Amendment and Reforms (2020)In 2020, the government introduced reforms to liberalise agricultural markets.Key changes:Cereals, pulses, oilseeds, edible oils, onions, and potatoes were removed from the list of essential commodities under normal circumstances.Stock limits can be imposed only under extraordinary situations such as: War, Famine, and Extraordinary price rise.

    Key Government Directive

    • All oil refining companies must use propane and butane streams primarily for LPG production.
    • Refiners are not allowed to divert propane or butane for:
      • Petrochemical products
      • Other downstream industrial uses.
    • LPG produced must be supplied to public sector oil marketing companies.

    Major public sector oil marketing companies include:

    • Indian Oil Corporation Limited
    • Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited
    • Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited
    • These companies will distribute LPG only to domestic consumers.
    [2010] Consider the following statements: The Union Government fixes the Statutory Minimum Price of sugarcane for each sugar season. Sugar and sugarcane are essential commodities under the Essential Commodities Act. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only  (b) 2 only  (c) Both 1 and 2  (d) Neither 1 nor 2

  • 204 of 238 Indian Cities Failed to Meet Air Quality Standards

    Why in the News

    A report by the Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air (CREA) analysing Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) data found that 204 out of 238 Indian cities exceeded national air quality standards during winter 2025–26.

    Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air (CREA)Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air (CREA) is an independent international research organisation that focuses on energy, air pollution, and climate change analysis. It is widely cited in global media and policy discussions for its data-driven assessments of fossil fuel use, emissions, and air quality impacts.

    Key Findings of the Report

    • Most Polluted Cities
      • Top cities with the highest PM2.5 concentration: Ghaziabad – 172 µg/m³, Noida – 166 µg/m³, and Delhi – 163 µg/m³
      • Other highly polluted cities include: Greater Noida, Bahadurgarh, Dharuhera, Gurugram, Bhiwadi, Charkhi Dadri, and Baghpat.
      • Most cities in the top 10 are from Uttar Pradesh and Haryana.
    • Megacity Air Pollution Levels
    • Average PM2.5 concentrations in major Indian cities:
      • Delhi – 163 µg/m³
      • Kolkata – 78 µg/m³
      • Mumbai – 48 µg/m³
      • Chennai – 44 µg/m³
      • Bengaluru – 39 µg/m³ (slightly below national limit)
    • Cleanest City
      • The cleanest city recorded was: Chamarajanagar – 19 µg/m³
      • Eight of the ten cleanest cities were in Karnataka, with one each in Madhya Pradesh and Meghalaya.

    PM2.5 Explained

    PM2.5 (Particulate Matter ≤2.5 micrometers)

    • Extremely fine particles in the air.
    • Can enter lungs and bloodstream.
    • Causes: Respiratory diseases, Heart disease, and Premature deaths.

    Prelims Pointers

    • CPCB functions under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
    • National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) specify permissible pollutant levels in India.
    • PM2.5 is considered one of the most dangerous air pollutants due to its ability to penetrate deep into the respiratory system.
    [2022] In the context of WHO Air Quality Guidelines, consider the following statements: The 24-hour mean of PM2.5 should not exceed 15 µg/m³ and annual mean of PM2.5 should not exceed 5 µg/m³. In a year, the highest levels of ozone pollution occur during the periods of inclement weather. PM10 can penetrate the lung barrier and enter the bloodstream. Excessive ozone in the air can trigger asthma. Which of the statements given above are correct? (a) 1, 3 and 4 (b) 1 and 4 only (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 2 only

  • Why India’s rice production and export strategy requires a rethink

    Why in the News?

    India has retained its position as the world’s largest rice exporter, accounting for over 40% of global rice exports, but recent data reveals a structural imbalance between production, irrigation patterns, and export strategy. While basmati rice earns far higher export value, most irrigation and policy support remains concentrated in water-intensive non-basmati cultivation in Punjab and Haryana. Also there is an intensified debate on climate stress and declining water tables that expose the long-term ecological and economic risks of India’s current rice policy.

    Why is India the world’s largest rice exporter?

    1. Global export dominance: India accounted for 21.69 million tonnes of rice exports in 2024-25, representing over 40% of global rice trade.
    2. Comparative advantage: India produces both basmati and non-basmati rice varieties, allowing access to multiple international markets.
    3. Competitive pricing: Large-scale production and government support through Minimum Support Price (MSP) and procurement policies reduce export costs.
    4. Production scale: India produced around 152 million tonnes of rice, ensuring a large exportable surplus.
    5. Regional specialization:
      1. Basmati rice: Cultivated mainly in Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh, and parts of Jammu & Kashmir.
      2. Non-basmati rice: Produced widely across eastern and southern India.

    Why does rice cultivation create severe environmental stress in India?

    1. Water-intensive crop: Rice cultivation requires 3,000-5,000 litres of water per kilogram of rice produced.
    2. Groundwater depletion: Paddy cultivation in Punjab and Haryana relies heavily on tube wells, causing rapid decline in groundwater levels.
    3. Flood irrigation practices: Traditional transplantation method keeps fields submerged for long periods, increasing water consumption
    4. Monoculture cropping pattern: Government procurement encourages rice-wheat cycles, reducing crop diversification.
    5. Energy consumption: Extensive pumping of groundwater increases electricity consumption and subsidy burden.

    How does India’s rice export composition reveal policy imbalance?

    1. High-value basmati exports: Basmati rice generates higher export value per tonne, mainly exported to West Asia, Europe, and North America.
    2. Lower-value non-basmati exports: Non-basmati rice contributes large volumes but lower revenue.
    3. Export value trends:
      1. Basmati exports: Around $5.8-$6.9 billion annually.
      2. Non-basmati exports: Around $4.5-$6.5 billion annually.
    4. Policy paradox: Most irrigation subsidies and procurement incentives favour non-basmati rice production in water-stressed regions, rather than high-value basmati.

    Why are irrigation and cropping patterns considered inefficient?

    1. Concentration in water-stressed regions: Major rice cultivation occurs in Punjab and Haryana, regions with limited natural rainfall.
    2. Delayed monsoon alignment: Rice transplantation often begins before monsoon arrival, increasing reliance on groundwater.
    3. Procurement bias: Government agencies procure large quantities of rice from north-west India, reinforcing unsustainable cropping patterns.
    4. Limited crop diversification: Farmers hesitate to shift to pulses, maize, or oilseeds due to assured rice procurement.

    What reforms are necessary to ensure sustainable rice production?

    1. Crop diversification: Encourages shift from paddy to maize, pulses, oilseeds, and millets in water-stressed regions.
    2. Promotion of direct seeded rice (DSR): Reduces water usage by 20-30% and lowers labour demand.
    3. Expansion of basmati cultivation: Higher-value exports generate greater income per hectare with comparatively lower water intensity.
    4. Irrigation efficiency: Adoption of micro-irrigation and precision farming reduces water consumption.
    5. Regional redistribution: Promotes rice cultivation in eastern states such as Bihar, West Bengal, Odisha, and Assam, which have higher rainfall.

    Conclusion

    India’s rice export success masks underlying ecological and economic vulnerabilities. Continued expansion of water-intensive rice cultivation in groundwater-stressed regions threatens long-term agricultural sustainability. Reforms must prioritize water-efficient cultivation, crop diversification, and expansion of high-value basmati exports. Aligning agricultural incentives with resource sustainability and market efficiency is essential to ensure that India remains a global rice leader without compromising environmental security.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2020] What are the major factors responsible for making the rice-wheat system a success? In spite of this success, how has this system become a bane in India?

    Linkage: This PYQ directly relates to the issue of rice-wheat monoculture driven by MSP, procurement, and irrigation policies, which boosted food security after the Green Revolution. However, the same system has led to groundwater depletion, soil degradation, and unsustainable cropping patterns, highlighting the need to rethink India’s rice production and export strategy.