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GS Paper: GS3

  • Decoding the SC order on regulatory assets

    Introduction

    India’s electricity sector faces a chronic mismatch between the cost of supply and the revenue collected, leaving distribution companies (DISCOMs) financially stressed. To bridge this gap, regulatory assets, unrecovered costs deferred for future recovery, have become common. The Supreme Court has now ordered DISCOMs and regulators to clear these within strict timelines and capped their creation, marking a crucial step towards financial discipline and consumer protection in the power sector.

    Significance of the Supreme Court’s Directive

    The Supreme Court directed State Electricity Regulatory Commissions (SERCs) and DISCOMs to clear existing regulatory assets within four years and any new ones within three years, while capping their creation at 3% of Annual Revenue Requirement (ARR). The Court also mandated transparent recovery roadmaps and intensive audits for non-compliant DISCOMs.The judgment is significant because it marks the first time the Supreme Court has set explicit timelines and caps for the liquidation of regulatory assets. With Delhi DISCOMs alone carrying regulatory assets worth over ₹58,000 crore, and Tamil Nadu reporting ₹89,375 crore in FY 2021-22, the scale of the problem is massive. The ruling highlights how the misuse of regulatory assets has become systemic, leading to debt accumulation, delayed payments to generators, and poor grid modernisation.

    Understanding Regulatory Assets

    1. Definition: Regulatory assets are deferred costs created when the Average Cost of Supply (ACS) is higher than the ARR, allowing DISCOMs to recover the gap later instead of burdening consumers immediately.
    2. Example: If ACS = ₹7.20/unit and ARR = ₹7.00/unit, the shortfall of ₹0.20 per unit across 10 billion units leads to a revenue gap of ₹2,000 crore, which becomes a regulatory asset.
    3. Consumer relief: Prevents immediate tariff shocks but leads to deferred steep tariff hikes later, often with interest.

    Causes of the Average Cost of Supply (ACS)- Annual Revenue Requirement (ARR) Gap

    1. Non-cost reflective tariffs: Tariffs often kept artificially low for political reasons.
    2. Delayed subsidies: State governments fail to release subsidies for agriculture or low-income households on time, worsening DISCOM finances.
    3. Fuel price shocks: Sudden increases in coal/gas prices inflate procurement costs.
    4. Historical evidence: Punjab’s 2004–05 case of ₹487 crore revenue gap set the precedent for regulatory assets in India.

    Impact of regulatory assets on consumers and DISCOMs

    1. Consumers:
      • Immediate stability in tariffs but eventual steeper hikes.
      • Example: Delhi DISCOMs must recover ₹16,580 crore annually in four years, implying an additional ₹5.5/unit on average.
    2. DISCOMs:
      • Persistent cash flow crises as revenue doesn’t cover costs.
      • Forced to borrow → higher debt burden.
      • Limited capacity to modernise grids, integrate renewables, or improve services.
      • Creates a vicious cycle of financial and operational distress.

    Regulatory Assets and Grid Modernisation

    1. Yes: Large unrecovered costs reduce capital available for investment in infrastructure.
    2. Renewable integration challenge: Financially weak DISCOMs are unable to invest in flexible grids or storage solutions.
    3. Consumer service compromise: Lower quality of supply, billing inefficiencies, and lack of digital modernisation.

    Way forward

    1. Cost-reflective tariffs: Rationalise tariffs while shielding vulnerable consumers with targeted subsidies.
    2. Timely subsidy release: State governments must ensure fiscal discipline.
    3. Automatic fuel cost adjustments: Tariffs should respond dynamically to input cost fluctuations.
    4. Annual true-up exercises: Prevent backlog accumulation by reconciling projections with actual costs.
    5. Regulatory discipline: Enforce caps, transparency, and timelines to ensure regulatory assets remain exceptional, not structural.

    Conclusion

    The Supreme Court’s directive signals a turning point for India’s power sector. It underlines the urgent need for financial discipline, timely subsidies, and transparent tariff setting. If implemented well, this move could break the cycle of deferred costs and inefficiencies, ensuring that electricity supply remains both affordable for consumers and financially viable for utilities. For policymakers, it serves as a reminder that delaying reforms through regulatory tools only compounds systemic risks.

    Value Addition

    Importance of DISCOMs in India’s Power Sector

    1. DISCOMs are the last-mile link in the electricity chain, responsible for delivering power to households, industries, and agriculture.
    2. Their financial health directly impacts energy access, affordability, and quality of supply.

    Current Financial Stress

    1. AT&C Losses: Aggregate Technical & Commercial losses remain high at ~16–20% (against a target of 12–15%).
    2. Revenue Gap: ACS > ARR leads to losses per unit supplied.
    3. Debt Burden: Many DISCOMs rely on borrowing to bridge gaps, adding to systemic financial stress.

    Key Causes of DISCOM Distress

    1. Non-cost reflective tariffs: Political pressure keeps tariffs lower than actual supply cost.
    2. Delayed subsidies: State governments often delay releasing agricultural/poor household subsidies.
    3. Cross-subsidisation: Industrial and commercial consumers are charged higher rates to subsidise other sectors, affecting competitiveness.
    4. Fuel price volatility: Sudden spikes in coal/gas prices worsen procurement costs.

    Government Initiatives for DISCOMs

    1. UDAY (2015): Transferred debt to State governments, targeted efficiency improvements.
    2. Revamped Distribution Sector Scheme (RDSS) (2021): RDSS, focuses on smart meters, loss reduction, and IT-based monitoring.
    3. Electricity Amendment Bill (2022) (proposed): Aims to promote competition, allow multiple distributors in the same area, and reduce monopolies.

    DISCOMs and Energy Transition

    1. Financially weak DISCOMs struggle to integrate renewable energy and invest in smart grids, storage, and modernisation.
    2. This hampers India’s 2030 renewable energy targets (500 GW capacity, 50% non-fossil share).

    Global Comparisons

    1. Many countries (e.g., UK, Germany) have cost-reflective tariff mechanisms and automatic adjustment clauses to prevent accumulation of arrears.
    2. India’s reliance on regulatory assets is unusual, reflecting deeper political economy challenges.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2021] “Access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy is the sine qua non to achieve Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).’’ Comment on the progress made in India in this regard.

    Linkage: The Supreme Court’s directive on regulatory assets directly ties to SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy) by addressing the financial distress of DISCOMs, which undermines both affordability for consumers and sustainability for utilities. India has expanded electricity access impressively, but the persistence of unrecovered costs, delayed subsidies, and non-cost-reflective tariffs highlight the fragility of the system. The judgment pushes for financial discipline, timely subsidy release, and transparent tariff recovery, ensuring that progress towards universal, reliable, and modern energy access is not compromised by systemic inefficiencies.

  • [pib] PRATUSH Mission

    Why in the News?

    Raman Research Institute (RRI) has devised the Probing ReionizATion of the Universe using Signal from Hydrogen (PRATUSH) Telescope to study the “Cosmic Dawn” by detecting radio signals from neutral hydrogen gas.

    About the PRATUSH Mission:

    • Developer: Designed by the Raman Research Institute (RRI), Bengaluru, an autonomous institute under the Department of Science and Technology (DST).
    • Main Goal: To study the Cosmic Dawn – the period when the first stars and galaxies formed – by detecting the faint 21-cm radio signal from neutral hydrogen.
    • Why from the Moon? On Earth, these signals get lost due to radio noise (like FM signals) and atmospheric distortions. The lunar far side is the quietest place in the inner Solar System for radio astronomy, making it the best site.
    • Scientific Importance: Will help scientists understand how the first stars heated and ionized hydrogen gas, how the early Universe changed, and may even give clues about dark matter and fundamental physics.

    Key Features:

    • Compact Design: Small, lightweight, low-power, and cost-effective – in line with the global trend of miniaturized space instruments.
    • Digital Receiver System:
      • Uses a single-board computer (like Raspberry Pi prototype).
      • Equipped with FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array) for high-speed radio data processing.
    • How it Works:
      • Antenna collects faint hydrogen signals.
      • Analog receiver amplifies them.
      • Digital receiver + FPGA convert them into detailed spectral fingerprints of sky brightness.
    • Test Results: Lab trials (352 hours) showed extremely low noise (few millikelvins), proving it can detect faint cosmic signals.
    • SWaP Advantage: Optimized for Size, Weight, and Power (SWaP), making it highly suitable for space deployment.
    [UPSC 2010]  In the context of space technology, what is Bhuvan, recently in the news?

    Options:

    (a) A mini satellite launched by ISRO for promoting the distance education in India

    (b) The name given to the next Moon Impact Probe, for Chandrayaan-II

    (c) A geoportal of ISRO with 3D imaging capabilities of India *

    (d) A space telescope developed by ISRO

     

  • Vikram 32-Bit Processor

    Why in the News?

    Union Minister for Electronics & IT has presented PM with a memento containing the first ‘Made in India’ Vikram 32-bit Launch Vehicle Grade Processor (VIKRAM3201).

    About Vikram 32-bit Processor (VIKRAM3201):

    • Overview: India’s first fully indigenous 32-bit space-grade microprocessor, developed by VSSC–ISRO with Semiconductor Laboratory (SCL), Chandigarh.
    • Lineage: Successor of 16-bit VIKRAM1601 (used since 2009 in ISRO launch vehicles), designed for avionics, navigation, guidance, and mission control.
    • Launch & Validation: Unveiled at Semicon India 2025 as a symbol of India’s semiconductor self-reliance. Validated in space during PSLV-C60 (2025) via POEM-4 experiments.
    • Applications: Primarily for space missions, but also suited for defence, automotive, and energy systems due to its rugged reliability.
    • Policy Support: Developed under India Semiconductor Mission and Design Linked Incentive (DLI) scheme, reflecting policy thrust on indigenous chip design and manufacturing.

    Key Technical Features:

    • Architecture: 32-bit design with support for 16/32-bit fixed-point and 64-bit floating-point (IEEE754) operations, essential for trajectory precision.
    • Registers & Memory: 32 registers (32-bit wide), capable of addressing up to 4096M words of memory.
    • Instruction Set: 152 instructions with microprogrammed control for flexibility in aerospace computations.
    • Performance: Operates at 100 MHz, single 3.3V supply, consumes <500 mW power, with <10 mA quiescent current.
    • Environmental Tolerance: Functions between –55°C to +125°C, fit for space and military conditions.
    • Interfaces: Equipped with four 32-bit timers, 256 software interrupts, and dual on-chip 1553B bus interfaces for avionics communication.
    • Software Compatibility: Optimised for Ada language (aerospace standard); C compiler support under development by ISRO.
    • Packaging & Fabrication: Built in a 181-pin ceramic PGA package, fabricated on 180 nm CMOS process at SCL, Mohali.
    [UPSC 2008] Which one of the following laser types is used in a laser printer?

    Options: (a) Dye laser  (b) Gas laser (c) Semiconductor laser  (d) Excimer laser

     

  • [2nd September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: The rise and risks of health insurance in India

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2023] Examine the pattern and trend of public expenditure on social services in the post-reforms period in India. To what extent this has been in consonance with achieving the objective of inclusive growth?

    Linkage: The expansion of Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PM-JAY) and State Health Insurance Programmes (SHIPs) shows rising public expenditure on health but largely towards insurance reimbursements rather than strengthening primary health infrastructure. This trend benefits private hospitals and tertiary care but fails to reduce out-of-pocket costs or enhance inclusivity, as utilisation remains low. Thus, the expenditure pattern reflects growth without true inclusiveness, misaligned with the objectives of inclusive growth.

    Mentor’s Comment

    The debate on health insurance in India has intensified in recent years, especially with the expansion of State-sponsored schemes like Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PM-JAY). While these initiatives provide some relief, the core question remains: can insurance-driven models substitute for robust public health infrastructure? This article unpacks the illusion of universal health coverage (UHC) through insurance, its systemic risks, and the urgent need for course correction.

    Introduction

    The Bhore Committee Report (1946) defined UHC as guaranteed access to quality health care for every citizen irrespective of their ability to pay. Eight decades later, India still falls far short of this goal. Instead of strengthening public health infrastructure, India has leaned heavily on health insurance schemes like the PMJAY and State Health Insurance Programmes (SHIPs). Though they provide relief to some, these schemes have created new distortions, risks, and inequities in the health system.

    The Surge of Health Insurance Schemes

    1. PMJAY Launch (2018): Landmark scheme under Ayushman Bharat with ₹5 lakh annual cover per household for in-patient care.
    2. Massive Coverage: In 2023–24, PMJAY covered 58.8 crore individuals with an annual budget of ₹12,000 crore.
    3. Parallel SHIPs: State-level schemes cover a similar number with a budget of at least ₹16,000 crore.
    4. Rising Budgets: SHIP allocations grew at 8–25% annually (2018–19 to 2023–24) in States like Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra.

    Commercialisation of Healthcare under Insurance

    1. Two-thirds of the PMJAY budget flows to private hospitals, often profit-oriented.
    2. Study findings: Minimal change in hospitalisation rates, but rise in private hospital use.
    3. Weak regulation: India’s poorly regulated profit-seeking providers dominate the system.

    Hospitalisation Bias in Insurance Models

    1. Bias towards hospitalisation: Insurance covers only in-patient care, neglecting primary and outpatient care.
    2. Ageing challenge: Expanding coverage to elderly (70+) risks disproportionate spending on tertiary care.

    Challenges in Effective Utilisation of Coverage

    1. High theoretical coverage: 80% of the population enrolled under PMJAY + SHIPs.
    2. Low effective use: Only 35% of insured patients could utilise benefits (2022–23 HCES).
    3. Barriers: Lack of awareness, procedural hurdles, and discrimination by providers.

    Discrimination in Healthcare Delivery

    1. Private hospitals: Prefer uninsured patients for higher commercial charges.
    2. Public hospitals: Prefer insured patients for reimbursement incentives.
    3. Result: Discriminatory treatment and pressure on patients to enrol immediately.

    Financial Strains Leading to Hospital Withdrawals

    1. Pending dues: PMJAY arrears reached ₹12,161 crore, more than its annual budget.
    2. Provider dissatisfaction: Low reimbursement, long delays.
    3. Hospital exits: 609 hospitals opted out of PMJAY since inception.

    Corruption and Irregularities in PMJAY and SHIPs

    1. Fraudulent practices: NHA flagged 3,200 hospitals for irregularities.
    2. Common issues: Overcharging, denial of treatment, unnecessary procedures.
    3. Weak safeguards: No evidence of effective audits or transparency in scheme portals.

    The Systemic Risk of Insurance-Led Health Care

    1. Profit over patients: Insurance reinforces commercial medicine rather than correcting it.
    2. Underfunded public health: India spends only 1.3% of GDP on health (World Bank, 2022), vs world average of 6.1%.
    3. Comparative failure: Unlike Canada and Thailand, India’s schemes lack universal coverage and non-profit focus.
    4. Result: Insurance becomes a “painkiller”, not a cure for India’s broken public health system.

    Conclusion

    Health insurance in India has expanded rapidly, but it remains a fragile foundation for UHC. It fosters profit-driven medicine, neglects primary care, suffers from poor utilisation, and is riddled with corruption. Without massive investment in public health infrastructure, primary care, and regulation, India cannot hope to achieve universal health coverage. Insurance schemes, at best, provide temporary relief, not sustainable health security.

    Value Addition
    1. National Health Policy, 2017: Targets increasing government health expenditure to 2.5% of GDP by 2025, but current levels remain at ~1.3%.
    2. High Out-of-Pocket Expenditure (OOPE): As per NSSO 2017–18, OOPE in India still accounts for over 50% of total health expenditure, one of the highest in the world.
    3. Lancet Commission on Global Surgery (2015): Highlighted that nearly 5 billion people worldwide lack access to safe, affordable surgery, underscoring the gaps in India’s insurance-driven, hospitalisation-focused approach.
    4. WHO Recommendation: For effective Universal Health Coverage (UHC), countries need to strengthen primary health systems — India still lags here, with sub-centres and PHCs facing severe staff shortages.
    5. National Health Accounts (NHAI) 2019–20: Show that private sector spending dominates health financing in India, with households bearing the brunt, unlike in OECD nations where governments fund the majority.
    6. Insurance Penetration vs. Health Security: India’s insurance penetration (life + non-life) is about 4.2% of GDP, but penetration does not automatically translate to healthcare access or financial protection.
    7. Ayushman Bharat Health and Wellness Centres (AB-HWCs): Intended to provide comprehensive primary healthcare (preventive + promotive), yet remain underfunded compared to PMJAY, skewing priorities.
    8. Equity Gap – Rural vs. Urban: Rural populations face doctor-population ratio deficits, with most PMJAY empanelled hospitals concentrated in urban centres, worsening regional disparities.
    9. Digital Health Mission (NDHM 2020): Aims to create digital health IDs and improve transparency, but challenges include digital divide and privacy concerns.
    10. Economic Survey 2020–21: Stressed that public health investment has high multiplier effects on productivity and human capital formation — much higher than insurance subsidies.

  • Noise pollution is rising but policy is falling silent

    Introduction

    Noise pollution in India has emerged as a silent but significant public health crisis. With urban decibel levels routinely breaching permissible limits near schools, hospitals, and residential zones, the constitutional promise of dignity and peace is being eroded. Despite a robust legal framework in place since 2000, fragmented enforcement, civic fatigue, and policy inertia have left the issue largely unaddressed. Unlike Europe, where noise-induced illnesses shape policymaking, India remains institutionally and politically silent.

    Why is noise pollution in the news?

    Noise pollution has resurfaced as a pressing issue because of increasing violations in silence zones, lack of updated enforcement mechanisms, and alarming ecological findings. The Central Pollution Control Board’s National Ambient Noise Monitoring Network (NANMN), launched in 2011 as a flagship real-time monitoring system, has become a passive repository with little accountability. In 2024, the Supreme Court reaffirmed that excessive noise is a violation of Article 21. A 2025 ecological study added urgency, revealing that even one night of urban noise disrupts bird song and communication.

    Weaknesses in India’s noise monitoring system

    1. Flawed sensor placement: Many noise monitors are mounted 25–30 feet high, violating CPCB’s 2015 guidelines and recording misleading data.
    2. Data without enforcement: NANMN has been reduced to a dashboard of figures with no link to penalties or compliance.
    3. Fragmented institutions: State Pollution Control Boards, traffic police, and municipalities act in silos, preventing unified action.
    4. Opacity in data: RTI queries remain unanswered, and States like Uttar Pradesh have not released first-quarter 2025 data.

    Noise pollution as a constitutional and legal challenge

    1. Right to life with dignity (Article 21): Supreme Court reaffirmed in 2024 that unchecked urban noise directly undermines mental well-being.
    2. Directive Principle (Article 48A): The State has a duty to protect and improve the environment, but silence on noise policy reflects neglect.
    3. Failure of Silence Zones: Hospitals and schools often record 65–70 dB(A) against the permissible 50 dB(A) daytime and 40 dB(A) nighttime limits set by WHO.

    Human and ecological costs of unchecked urban noise

    1. Mental health erosion: Chronic noise exposure causes disturbed sleep cycles, hypertension, and reduced cognitive function.
    2. Children and elderly at risk: Sensitive groups face aggravated anxiety and cardiovascular problems.
    3. Biodiversity disruption: 2025 Auckland study shows even one night of noise alters bird song complexity, affecting species survival and ecological communication.
    4. Cultural normalisation: Honking, drilling, and loudspeakers have become ambient irritants, tolerated rather than resisted.

    Fragmented governance and symbolic compliance

    1. Weak legal update: Noise Pollution Rules, 2000 have not been revised to reflect rapid urbanisation and logistics-heavy economies.
    2. Institutional silos: No coordination between police, local bodies, and SPCBs, leaving sporadic enforcement drives without systemic change.
    3. Judicial reminders: Despite Noise Pollution (V), In Re (2005, reaffirmed in 2024), state capacity to enforce remains symbolic.

    Towards a national acoustic policy and cultural change

    1. Decentralise monitoring: Grant local governments access to real-time NANMN data.
    2. Link data with penalties: Without enforcement, monitoring becomes performative.
    3. National acoustic policy: Define permissible decibel limits across zones with periodic audits.
    4. Urban planning reforms: Embed acoustic resilience into city designs, zoning, and transport planning.
    5. Sonic empathy campaigns: Similar to seatbelt norms, honking reduction must be internalised through community education.

    Conclusion

    Noise pollution is not an invisible irritant, it is a public health emergency, an ecological disruptor, and a constitutional concern. Without a rights-based framework that treats silence as essential to dignity, India’s urban future risks becoming unliveable. The challenge is not only regulatory but also cultural: fostering a shared ethic of sonic empathy. Silence must not be imposed, but enabled through design, governance, and civic will.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2023] What is oil pollution? What are its impacts on the marine ecosystem? In what way is oil pollution particularly harmful for a country like India?

    Linkage: Both oil and noise pollution are invisible pollutants with severe but often neglected impacts — oil disrupts marine ecosystems while noise erodes mental health and biodiversity.

    Like India’s vulnerability to oil spills due to its long coastline, rapid urbanisation makes it highly exposed to noise hazards. In both cases, regulatory frameworks exist but enforcement is fragmented, highlighting a gap between law and practice.

  • NASA-ESA Solar Orbiter Mission

    Why in the News?

    The NASA-ESA Solar Orbiter Mission has recently traced the origin of Solar Energetic Electrons (SEE), advancing knowledge of solar activity and space weather.

    NASA-ESA Solar Orbiter Mission

    About NASA–ESA Solar Orbiter Mission:

    • Launch & Cost: Launched in Feb 2020 on an Atlas V from Cape Canaveral; joint ESA–NASA mission worth $1.5 billion.
    • Duration: Primary mission till 2026, extendable to 2030.
    • Orbit: Highly eccentric, approaching 0.28 AU (inside Mercury’s orbit); gradually tilts to image Sun’s poles.
    • Payload: 10 instruments — both in-situ (solar wind, magnetic fields, particles) and remote sensing (imaging, spectroscopy).
    • Firsts & Objectives: First to image solar poles; aims to study solar wind origin, solar cycle dynamics, causes of flares/CMEs, and their impact on heliosphere & space weather.

    What are Solar Energetic Electrons (SEE)?

    • What are they: Streams of high-energy electrons released into space, travelling across the heliosphere.
    • Sources: Emerge from solar flares (sudden surface bursts) and coronal mass ejections (CMEs) (plasma + magnetic eruptions).
    • Patterns: Release not always immediate; often delayed by hours due to turbulence/scattering in interplanetary medium.
    • Solar Orbiter Observations: Detected 300+ bursts (2020–22), clearly linking SEE to solar flares/CMEs for the first time.

    Significance of the recent findings:

    • Science: Clarifies Sun’s particle acceleration mechanisms.
    • Space Weather: CMEs are the main drivers of severe events — affecting satellites, GPS, communication, power grids, and astronaut safety.
    • Practical Utility: Improves solar storm forecasting and early-warning systems for infrastructure & human spaceflight.
    • Long Term Implications: Expected to revolutionise solar physics and our predictive capacity of Sun–Earth interactions.
    [UPSC 2022] If a major solar storm (solar flare) reaches the Earth, which of the following are the possible effects on the Earth?

    1. GPS and navigation systems could fail.

    2. Tsunamis could occur at equatorial regions.

    3. Power grids could be damaged.

    4. Intense auroras could occur over much of the Earth.

    5. Forest fires could take place over much of the planet.

    6. Orbits of the satellites could be disturbed.

    7. Shortwave radio communication of the aircraft flying over polar regions could be interrupted.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1, 2, 4 and 5 only (b) 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 only (c) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7* only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7

     

  • Dongar Cultivation of Odisha

    Why in the News?

    The Dongar cultivation, a hill-slope mixed cropping system of the Kondh tribals in Odisha’s Rayagada is now under decline due to eucalyptus monoculture.

    What is Dongar Cultivation?

    • Overview: A traditional shifting/mixed cropping system practised on hill slopes (uplands) by the Kondh tribal community in Odisha.
    • Crops grown: Millets (finger millet, foxtail millet), pulses, oilseeds, and even uncultivated foods like wild tubers.
    • Benefits offered: Provides nutritional diversity, supports birds and biodiversity, and maintains soil fertility without chemical inputs.
    • Cultural practice: Linked to seed conservation, labour exchange, and community-based farming traditions, reflecting a holistic tribal food system.
    • Significance: Its poly-cropping nature makes it more resilient to rainfall variability and climate shocks, unlike monocultures.

    Other Traditional Cultivation Practices in India:

    Type Key Features
    Bewar / Dahiya (Madhya Pradesh Baiga & Gond tribes, Dindori district) Shifting cultivation; mixed cropping of millets, pulses, oilseeds; similar to Dongar; sustainable tribal food system.
    Poonam Krishi (Western Ghats, Maharashtra & Karnataka) Traditional multi-cropping around rice fields; ensures year-round food and fodder security.
    Pamlou (Manipur) Form of jhum (slash-and-burn) cultivation; rotational clearing of forests; crops include cereals, pulses, vegetables; supports subsistence farming.
    Kuruma / Podu (Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh) Hill-slope shifting cultivation; millets and pulses dominant; threatened by monoculture plantations and forest restrictions.
    Apatanis’ Wet Rice Cultivation – Arunachal Pradesh Intensive valley wetland system; combines paddy farming with fish rearing; highly sustainable and productive.

     

    [UPSC 2018] With reference to the circumstances in Indian agriculture, the concept of “Conservation Agriculture” assumes significance.  Which of the following fall under the Conservation Agriculture?

    1. Avoiding the monoculture practices

    2. Adopting minimum tillage

    3. Avoiding the cultivation of plantation crops

    4. Using crop residues to cover soil surface

    5. Adopting spatial and temporal rop sequencing/crop rotations.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 1, 3 and 4 (b) 2, 3, 4 and 5 (c) 2, 4 and 5 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 5*

     

  • Jarosite in Kutch: India’s Mars Analogue Site

    Why in the News?

    Matanomadh in Kutch, Gujarat, with jarosite deposits like those on Mars, is being considered by ISRO as a test site for future Mars missions.

    What is Jarosite?

    • Composition: A yellow, iron-rich sulphate mineral containing iron, sulphur, oxygen, and potassium.
    • Formation: Develops when volcanic ash or sulphur-bearing minerals chemically react with water, making it a marker of past water–rock interaction.
    • Discovery in India: Reported in 2016 at Matanomadh, Kutch (Gujarat) by ISRO’s Space Applications Centre; also found at Varkala cliffs, Kerala. Kutch is more suitable for planetary research.
    • Martian Link: Detected in 2004 by NASA’s Opportunity Rover. This referred as terrestrial clone of Martian surface.
    • Global Occurrence: Found in Mexico, Spain, Canada, Japan, and the USA (Utah, California), all serving as Mars analogue sites.

    Matanomadh’s Significance for Mars Study:

    • Mars Analogue Value: Geological dating shows deposits about 55 million years old (Paleocene period), resembling early Martian conditions.
    • Test Bed for ISRO: Provides ground for testing rover mobility, drilling systems, geochemical studies, and remote sensing for Mangalyaan-2 and future missions.
    • Astrobiology Potential: Since jarosite can trap organic molecules, it helps in shaping strategies to search for signs of past life on Mars.
    • Complement to Ladakh: While Ladakh sites simulate Martian climate, Matanomadh represents Martian geology and mineralogy, creating a comprehensive Mars-analogue ecosystem in India.
    • Conservation Importance: Facing threats from waterlogging and coal mining; scientists urge its declaration as a Planetary Geo-heritage Site.
    • Strategic Edge: Strengthens India’s role in planetary exploration, astrobiology research, and international collaborations.
    [UPSC 2016] Consider the following statements:

    1. The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO

    2. is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission

    3. made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA

    4. made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit the Mars in its very first attempt

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only   (b) 2 and 3 only   (c) 1 and 3 only * (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • [1st September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: India’s economic churn, the nectar of growth

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2019] Do you agree with the view that steady GDP growth and low inflation have left the Indian economy in good shape? Give reasons in support of your arguments.

    Linkage: India’s steady GDP growth of 7.8%, coupled with broad-based sectoral performance, reflects macroeconomic stability, while effective fiscal and monetary discipline underpins low inflation. The sovereign rating upgrade after 18 years validates external confidence in India’s fundamentals. These trends, along with inclusive poverty reduction, highlight that the economy is indeed in good shape.

    Mentor’s Comment

    India’s economy is once again at the centre of global attention. From being dismissed as a “dead economy” by sceptics, the latest economic data, sovereign rating upgrade, and energy security achievements have painted a powerful picture of resilience and renewal. This article unpacks the recent developments in India’s economic and energy story, their significance, and what they mean for aspirants of Viksit Bharat.

    Why is this issue in the news?

    India’s Q1 FY 2025-26 GDP figures revealed 7.8% real growth, the fastest among major economies, coupled with a historic sovereign rating upgrade by S&P Global after 18 years. Simultaneously, India has consolidated its position as the world’s third-largest energy consumer and is spearheading a green transition. These milestones are striking because they overturn the “dead economy” narrative, highlight India’s growing share in global growth, and showcase a balance between growth, reform, and welfare, all while maintaining democratic values in contrast to authoritarian models of fast-paced growth.

    Introduction

    Indian civilisation has always embraced the philosophy that turbulence precedes triumph, like the Samudra Manthan, where chaos yielded nectar. Similarly, India’s economic journey has turned crises into opportunities, from the liberalisation of 1991 to the digital surge during COVID-19. Today, India stands at another inflection point. Despite global headwinds and doubts, the country is demonstrating robust growth, deepening reforms, and a secure energy base, shaping the narrative of resilience and inclusive progress.

    Broad-based economic growth

    1. GDP expansion: Real GDP grew 7.8% in Q1 FY 2025-26, while GVA rose 7.6%, supported by manufacturing (7.7%), construction (7.6%), and services (9.3%).
    2. Global standing: India is the world’s fourth-largest economy and the fastest-growing major one, projected to overtake Germany by decade’s end.
    3. Global contribution: Independent estimates suggest India contributes 15% of incremental world growth, with ambitions to raise it to 20%.

    Why the sovereign rating upgrade matters

    1. S&P recognition: First upgrade in 18 years, citing robust growth, fiscal consolidation, and monetary credibility.
    2. Lower borrowing costs: Improves India’s access to cheaper capital and widens the investor base.
    3. Narrative shift: Counters the label of a “dead economy,” giving credibility to India’s reforms.

    Growth with inclusion

    1. Poverty reduction: 24.82 crore Indians moved out of multidimensional poverty between 2013-14 and 2022-23.
    2. Last-mile delivery: Success through bank accounts, clean cooking fuel, health cover, tap water, and direct benefit transfers (DBT).
    3. Democratic model: Built on consensus, competitive federalism, and digital rails, contrasting authoritarian growth models.

    Energy security as a growth driver

    1. Global role: India is the third-largest energy consumer, fourth-largest refiner, and fourth-largest LNG importer.
    2. Capacity expansion: Refining capacity of 5.2 mb/d with plans to cross 400 MTPA by 2030.
    3. Exploration reforms: Sedimentary basin coverage expanded to 16% in 2025 (from 8% in 2021), with 1 million sq km target by 2030.
    4. Gas reforms: New pricing linked to Indian crude basket; 20% premium for deepwater wells boosting investment.

    India’s energy transition

    1. Ethanol blending: Surged from 1.5% (2014) to 20% today, saving ₹1.25 lakh crore forex and paying ₹1 lakh crore to farmers.
    2. Green fuels: 300 compressed biogas plants under SATAT, targeting 5% blending by 2028.
    3. Hydrogen push: Oil PSUs driving the green hydrogen mission.

    Responding to global criticism on Russian oil

    1. Compliance: India operates fully within G-7/EU price cap systems; every transaction uses legal, audited channels.
    2. Global stabiliser: Purchases prevented oil shocks and stabilised prices, aligning with Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam.
    3. Export reality: India has been a top petroleum exporter for decades, not a “laundromat” for Russia.

    India’s digital-industrial revolution

    1. Semiconductors: Four new projects cleared under the India Semiconductor Mission; strengthened by Japan collaborations.
    2. Digital economy: India leads in real-time payments; UPI enhances small-business productivity and exports of solutions.
    3. Synergy: Gati Shakti logistics & digital rails reduce costs, formalise the economy, and spur consumption.

    Conclusion

    India’s recent performance is more than statistics, it is the reaffirmation of resilience, reform, and inclusion. The world’s doubters labelled it a “dead economy,” yet growth, energy security, digital leadership, and poverty reduction tell a different story. As reforms deepen, India is on track not just to become the world’s third-largest economy soon but also to build a model of democratic, inclusive, and sustainable growth. For India, Viksit Bharat is not aspiration, it is delivery in motion.

  • Data shows seas rising faster around Maldives, Lakshadweep than believed

    Introduction

    Sea-level rise is one of the most significant consequences of global warming, threatening ecosystems, economies, and human settlements. In the Indian Ocean, recent findings based on coral microatolls suggest that sea levels began rising rapidly as early as the 1950s, decades before satellite and tide-gauge data had indicated. This challenges existing assumptions in climate change studies and raises critical questions about preparedness for vulnerable island states like Maldives, Lakshadweep, and the Chagos archipelago.

    Coral Microatolls as Natural Recorders of Sea-Level History

    • Unique natural recorders: Coral microatolls are disk-shaped colonies that stop growing upwards once constrained by the lowest tide, making their surface a natural reflection of long-term sea-level change.
    • Longevity and accuracy: They can survive for decades or centuries, providing high-resolution, continuous data.
    • Study site: Research conducted on Mahutigalaa reef, Huvadhoo Atoll (Maldives), measured a Porites microatoll covering 1930–2019.

    Acceleration and Scale of Sea-Level Rise in the Indian Ocean

    • Accelerated rise: Data showed a 0.3 metre increase over 90 years.
    • Rates of rise:
      • 1930–1959: 1–1.84 mm/year
      • 1960–1992: 2.76–4.12 mm/year
      • 1990–2019: 3.91–4.87 mm/year
    • Striking revelation: Sea-level rise began in the late 1950s, not around 1990 as earlier assumed.
    • Cumulative impact: Maldives, Lakshadweep, and Chagos have witnessed 30–40 cm rise in half a century, worsening flooding and erosion risks.

    Climate Variability and Environmental Signals Captured in Corals

    • Climate variability: Slow or interrupted coral growth coincided with El Niño and negative Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) events.
    • Astronomical influence: The 18.6-year lunar nodal cycle was reflected in the growth bands, showing tidal and sea-level oscillations.
    • Tectonic stability: Critical factor ensuring that coral growth data reflects sea-level change rather than land movement.

    Regional Significance of Findings for the Indian Ocean Basin

    • Above-average warming: The Indian Ocean is heating faster than the global average, amplifying sea-level fluctuations.
    • Strategic gaps: Despite its ecological and geopolitical importance, the central Indian Ocean is one of the least-monitored basins.
    • Regional variations: Coastal areas saw recent acceleration, but the central basin experienced earlier, stronger rise, influenced by shifts in Southern Hemisphere westerlies, ocean heat uptake, and the Intertropical Convergence Zone.

    Vulnerabilities and Adaptation Imperatives for Island Nations

    • Existential threat: Infrastructure and communities are concentrated just above sea level in Maldives and Lakshadweep.
    • Adaptation strategies: Understanding historic timing and magnitude of sea-level rise is vital for coastal planning, disaster preparedness, and climate resilience.
    • Scientific value: Microatolls cannot replace tide gauges or satellites but offer a vital complementary tool to refine projections in data-sparse regions.

    Conclusion

    The discovery that sea-level rise in the Maldives and Lakshadweep began decades earlier than thought is a wake-up call for policymakers and communities. Coral microatolls, silent sentinels of the ocean, have revealed the urgency of accelerating adaptation and resilience measures. As the Indian Ocean warms faster than global averages, the survival of low-lying nations will depend on proactive international cooperation and evidence-based planning.

     

    Value Addition

    Global Reports and Scientific Frameworks

    • IPCC AR6 (2021–22): Predicts global mean sea level rise of 0.28–1.01 m by 2100, depending on emission scenarios.
    • World Meteorological Organization (WMO): State of the Global Climate 2023: Confirms Indian Ocean warming faster than the global average, intensifying regional sea-level anomalies.
    • UNFCCC & Paris Agreement: Commitments to limit warming below 2°C directly shape adaptation strategies for vulnerable island nations.

    Case Studies for Enrichment

    • Maldives: Declared intent to become a carbon-neutral nation by 2030; adaptation measures include artificial islands and elevated infrastructure.
    • Kiribati (Pacific Island): Purchased land in Fiji to relocate populations – showcases climate migration.
    • Lakshadweep Islands: Reports of shoreline erosion, freshwater lens salinity, and threat to tourism livelihoods.

    Scientific Concepts for Enrichment

    • Thermal Expansion: Ocean water expands as it warms, contributing ~50% to global sea-level rise.
    • Cryosphere–Ocean Linkages: Melting of Greenland & Antarctic ice sheets accelerates rise beyond thermal expansion.
    • Lunar Nodal Cycle (18.6 years): Natural oscillation in tides influencing local sea-level variability, as confirmed in microatoll data.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2023] The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has predicted a global sea level rise of about one metre by AD 2100. What would be its impact in India and the other countries in the Indian Ocean region?

    Linkage: The article’s findings on coral microatolls show that sea-level rise in the Maldives, Lakshadweep, and Chagos began as early as the 1950s, much earlier than assumed. This reinforces IPCC projections of accelerated rise, highlighting existential risks for low-lying islands. For India and the wider Indian Ocean region, the impacts include intensified coastal erosion, loss of habitats, and the need for urgent adaptation strategies.