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GS Paper: GS3

  • Operation Med Max

    Why in the News?

    The Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB) has busted a global drug network spanning four continents through secret Operation Med Max.

    Back2Basics: Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB)

    • Institutional Mandate: The NCB is India’s central drug law enforcement and intelligence agency, functioning under the Ministry of Home Affairs.
    • Establishment: It was established on 14th November 1985 under the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act, 1985.
    • Role: The agency works closely with Customs, State Police, Intelligence Bureau, and international agencies like Interpol and the US DEA.
    • International Treaty Compliance: NCB is responsible for monitoring India’s compliance with global drug control conventions and facilitating cooperation with foreign drug enforcement bodies.
    • Operational Network: It maintains zonal offices nationwide and is staffed by officers from IPS, IRS, paramilitary forces, and direct recruits.
    • Financial Surveillance Role: The NCB is a member of the Economic Intelligence Council, reflecting its role in tracking financial transactions linked to drug crimes.
    • Digital Intelligence Focus: The agency is now expanding into cyber surveillance, targeting darknet networks, crypto-based payments, and online narcotics trade.

    About Operation Med Max:

    • Launch: It was initiated by the Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB) in May 2024, beginning with the interception of a car in Delhi, it seized 3.7 kg of Tramadol tablets.
    • Uncovering a Global Syndicate: Investigations revealed a transnational drug syndicate using encrypted apps, drop shipping, and cryptocurrency payments to smuggle controlled pharmaceutical drugs across four continents and over 10 countries.
    • Global Ramifications: The probe triggered international enforcement actions, including the arrest of a money launderer in Alabama (USA), closure of an illegal pill factory in Australia, and identification of a UAE-based drug kingpin.

    Also in News: Operation MELON

    • Overview: It was a coordinated crackdown on India’s top-rated darknet drug vendor, alias “Ketamelon”, active for over two years.
    • Drug and Crypto Seizures: The raid led to the seizure of 1,100 LSD blots, 131 grams of Ketamine, and ₹70 lakh worth of cryptocurrency, stored in a hardware wallet.
    • Darknet Threat: Ketamelon was classified as a Level 4 darknet vendor, the highest possible rank, underscoring the growing cyber-narcotics threat and NCB’s technical capacity to counter it.
    [UPSC 2024] Consider the following activities:

    1. Identification of narcotics on passengers at airports or in aircraft

    2. Monitoring of precipitation

    3. Tracking the migration of animals

    In how many of the above activities can the radars be used?

    Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) All three (d) None

     

  • Invisible Exports of India

    Why in the News?

    As of 2024–25, India’s “invisibles” trade—comprising services exports and private money transfers—has not only surpassed its merchandise exports but also emerged as a key stabiliser of the current account deficit.

    What are Invisible Exports (in India’s context)?

    • What is it: Invisible exports refer to international trade in services and income flows that do not involve physical goods crossing borders. These transactions are digital or financial, rather than visible at ports or airports.
    • Types of Services Included: They comprise a wide range of service-based exports such as IT services, financial consulting, legal and accounting services, R&D, and BPO operations.
    • Inclusion of Remittances: Private remittances—money sent home by Indians working abroad—are counted as part of invisibles in India’s Balance of Payments (BoP).
    • BoP Classification: These transactions are recorded under the “Current Account” of the BoP, specifically in the sub-categories of services, primary income, and secondary income.
    • Characteristics: Unlike physical exports, invisible exports do not require shipping, face fewer trade barriers, and rely heavily on skilled human capital.
    • Leading Examples: India’s key invisible exports include software and IT-enabled services (by firms like Infosys, TCS, Wipro), Global Capability Centers, financial and legal services, and education, tourism, and medical services.
    • Role of Migrant Remittances: Remittances from NRIs and migrant workers play a crucial role and are one of the largest components of India’s invisible receipts.

    Their Contribution in Trade

    • Higher Value than Goods Exports: In 2024–25, India’s gross invisible receipts reached $576.5 billion, surpassing merchandise exports of $441.8 billion. Services alone brought in $387.5 billion, a major leap from $26.9 billion in 2003–04, while remittances added $135.4 billion.
    • Buffer Against Trade Deficits: While the merchandise trade deficit stood at $287.2 billion, a net invisible surplus of $263.8 billion helped reduce the overall current account deficit to just $23.4 billion, providing crucial stability.
    • Resilience Across Global Crises: Invisible exports remained strong during major disruptions like the 2008 financial crisis, COVID-19 pandemic, and ongoing geopolitical tensions, showcasing greater resilience than merchandise trade.
    • Human Capital-Driven Growth: Services exports are powered by India’s skilled workforce, not physical infrastructure. India thrives as the “office of the world”, moving beyond the traditional “back office” label.
    • Less Policy Dependence: Growth in invisible exports occurred largely without heavy government incentives or trade agreements. India still lacks strong service-sector provisions in its major trade deals.
    [UPSC 2006] Assertion (A): Balance of Payments represents a better picture of a country’s economic transactions with the rest of the world than the Balance of Trade.

    Reason (R): Balance of Payments takes into account the exchange of both visible and invisible items whereas Balance of Trade does not.

    Options: (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A **  (b) Both A and R are individually true and R is not the correct explanation of A (c) A is true but R is false (d) A is false but R is true

     

  • Concern over falling household savings in India – what can be done

    Why in the News?

    India’s household savings rate fell to 29.7% of GDP in 2022–23, the lowest level in 40 years, down from 34.6% in 2011–12.

    What led to the decline in household financial savings in India?

    • Rise in Consumption Expenditure: After the COVID-19 pandemic, households increased spending on consumer durables, travel, and lifestyle, reducing the capacity to save.
    • High Inflation: Persistent rise in prices of essentials like food, fuel, and healthcare eroded disposable income and limited savings.
    • Shift Towards Riskier Financial Assets: Investments in mutual funds and equities increased, with SIP contributions rising significantly, while traditional savings like fixed deposits declined.
    • Slow Income Growth and High Interest Rates (Fisher Effect): Stagnant wages and low nominal income growth, coupled with high interest rates and loan EMIs, reduced household savings potential.
    • Rising Household Debt: Household liabilities reached 6.4% of GDP in FY24, due to more borrowing for housing, education, and personal loans.
    • Reversal of COVID-Era Forced Savings: Savings spiked during lockdowns but dropped sharply as economic activity resumed and pent-up demand surged.

    Why is the shift to financial assets important for capital formation?

    • Improves Resource Mobilisation: Financial assets like deposits, mutual funds, and pension funds channel household savings into productive sectors, supporting investment and infrastructure growth.
    • Enhances Financial Intermediation and Efficiency: Financial institutions act as intermediaries, allocating savings to sectors with higher returns and productivity, ensuring efficient capital use. Eg: Banks mobilise savings into loans for MSMEs, which contribute significantly to employment and GDP.
    • Reduces Idle Capital and Boosts Formal Economy: Unlike physical assets (like gold and real estate), financial assets contribute to the formal economy, increasing credit availability and financial inclusion. Eg: Shift from gold to digital savings accounts increases liquidity and boosts credit growth in the economy.

    How has rising household debt impacted financial stability?

    • Increased Vulnerability to Economic Shocks: High debt levels reduce households’ ability to absorb income shocks (like job loss or medical emergencies), leading to loan defaults and stress on financial institutions. Eg: During the COVID-19 pandemic, many households defaulted on EMIs due to income loss, affecting NBFCs and banks.
    • Reduced Net Financial Savings: Growing liabilities shrink the net financial savings rate, limiting the funds available for productive investments and weakening domestic capital formation. Eg: In FY24, household liabilities rose to 6.4% of GDP while financial savings fell to 5.1%, a four-decade low.
    • Pressure on Banking and Credit Systems: High levels of unsecured loans (like personal and gold loans) increase credit risk, prompting regulatory tightening and affecting credit flow to the economy. Eg: RBI imposed stricter norms on personal loans in FY25 to prevent systemic risk from unsecured lending growth.

    What steps can improve savings among rural and low-income groups?

    • Promote Micro-Savings Products: Introduce low-ticket savings schemes tailored for daily or weekly contributions. Eg: The PM Jan Dhan Yojana encourages basic savings with zero-balance accounts.
    • Provide Government-Backed Guarantees and Incentives: Offer interest subsidies, insurance cover, or guaranteed returns to build trust among low-income savers. Eg: The Kisan Vikas Patra and Public Provident Fund (PPF) offer guaranteed returns with sovereign backing.
    • Expand Financial Literacy Campaigns: Run focused awareness drives on budgeting, saving, and investment options in local languages. Eg: RBI’s Financial Literacy Week and SEBI’s village workshops educate people on safe saving practices.
    • Leverage Digital and Fintech Solutions: Use mobile wallets, micro-investing apps, and digital payment systems to make saving more accessible. Eg: Platforms like Paytm Payments Bank and Airtel Payments Bank offer micro-savings and insurance.
    • Revamp and Strengthen Post Office Schemes: Modernise postal savings with better accessibility, digital interface, and doorstep banking. Eg: Rural Post Offices now offer core banking services, enabling safer and formal saving options.
    • Introduce Default Saving Options (Behavioral Nudges): Implement opt-out pension schemes or auto-enrollment in saving plans for informal workers. Eg: The Atal Pension Yojana encourages informal sector workers to save for retirement through auto-debits.

    Way forward: 

    • Develop a National Household Savings Strategy: Create a coordinated policy framework across ministries with clear targets, integrating financial literacy, product innovation, and social security measures for underserved populations.
    • Encourage Inclusive Fintech Innovations: Promote user-friendly micro-investing platforms, AI-driven financial guidance, and blockchain-based savings tools to enable secure, transparent, and accessible savings for rural and low-income households.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2017] Among several factors for India’s potential growth, savings rate is the most effective one. Do you agree? What are the other factors available for growth potential?

    Linkage: The artilce explicitly state that India’s gross domestic savings rate fell to its lowest in four decades (29.7% of GDP in 2022-23). This question directly related to the importance of the savings rate for India’s growth, which aligns with the concern over falling household savings. 

  • International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for FAO

    Why in the News?

    India has expressed serious concerns over proposed changes to the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA)—popularly known as the Plant Treaty.

    About the Plant Treaty, 2001:

    • Adoption: It was adopted by the FAO on 3rd November 2001 and came into force in 2004.
    • Purpose: It governs the Multilateral System (MLS) for the access and benefit-sharing of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (PGRFA).
    • Key Features:
      • Coverage of Crops: The MLS currently includes 64 essential food crops and forages listed in Annex I, which together meet around 80% of the world’s plant-based food needs.
      • Access Mechanism: Access to these genetic materials is provided for research, breeding, and training purposes through a Standard Material Transfer Agreement (SMTA).
      • Benefit-Sharing Approach: The Treaty incorporates monetary and non-monetary benefit-sharing mechanisms, with a focus on supporting biodiversity in developing countries.
      • IP Restrictions: It prohibits any intellectual property claims over the raw genetic materials accessed under the system.
      • Recognition of Farmers’ Rights: It affirms farmers’ rights, such as the protection of traditional knowledge, equitable benefit-sharing, and participation in national decisions about PGRFA use and conservation.
    • India’s Participation: India is a signatory and active participant and implements the Treaty alongside domestic legislation like the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights (PPV&FR) Act, 2001.

    Proposed Amendments:

    • Objective: The upcoming proposal aims to expand the scope of the MLS to include all PGRFA, not just those in Annex I.
    • New Inclusions: The expansion would bring in indigenous varieties, non-commercial crops, and community-protected heirloom seeds under the MLS framework.
    • Impact on India’s Obligations: If passed, the amendment would mandate countries like India to share all plant germplasm through the existing SMTA process.
    • No Change in Benefit Terms: The amendment retains current benefit-sharing mechanisms, which critics argue are often non-monetary or merely symbolic.
    • Concerns over IP Rights: The broadened scope may lead to intellectual property loopholes if traditional seeds are repackaged or genetically altered.
    • Allegations of Biopiracy: Critics argue the proposal enables “backdoor biopiracy”, especially of the Global South’s rich seed diversity.

    India’s Concerns:

    • Loss of Seed Sovereignty: India fears it will lose discretion over which seeds to share, weakening its ability to protect unique plant biodiversity.
    • Undermining of Farmers’ Rights: The proposal might override the rights granted to farmers under the Plant Treaty and India’s PPV&FR Act, which view them as custodians of seed heritage.
    • Erosion of National Authority: The expansion could violate Articles 10 and 11 of the Treaty, which grant countries sovereign control over their genetic resources.
    • Violation of Federal Principles: The lack of consultation with States is seen as a breach of India’s federal structure, as agriculture is a State subject under Schedule VII of the Constitution.
    • Marginalization of Biodiversity Boards: The role of State Biodiversity Boards may be diminished, despite their importance in regulating local germplasm and community rights.
    • Lack of Equitable Returns: India argues that the global system offers little real benefit, raising doubts about fairness and justice in benefit-sharing.
    [UPSC 2014] Consider the following international agreements:

    1. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.

    2. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification.

    3. The World Heritage Convention. Which of the above has/have a bearing on the biodiversity?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • How Heat led to Protocells formation on Earth?

    Why in the News?

    A new Nature Physics study suggests that warm volcanic rock surfaces may have concentrated organic molecules in watery cracks, triggering life-like chemistry—offering a clue to how protocells formed without membranes before life began.

    What are Protocells?

    • Overview: Protocells are primitive, cell-like bubbles believed to be early precursors of real biological cells. They were not fully alive but provided a space for early chemical interactions.
    • Lack of Complexity: These structures lacked complex parts like organelles or DNA systems but could hold important molecules like RNA and amino acids together.
    • Membrane Role: Protocells often formed simple membranes or boundaries, which allowed molecules to stay enclosed and interact more easily—helping early reactions like protein synthesis happen.
    • Importance: Although not living, they offered a model of how basic chemistry could evolve into biology, bridging the gap between non-living and living systems.

    History of Formation of Protocells:

    • Early Earth Conditions: Over 3.5 billion years ago, Earth’s surface had warm water pools and volcanic cracks filled with organic molecules made by natural processes like lightning.
    • Compartmentalization: The first step toward life was concentrating useful molecules in one place, so they could start reacting—this led to the idea of bubble-like protocells.
    • Old Theories: In the 1920s, Oparin and Haldane proposed that life began in a “primordial soup” with spontaneous chemical reactions in early Earth’s oceans.
    • Modern Insights: Newer research suggests cracks in volcanic rock or hydrothermal vents created temperature gradients and water flows that helped form protocells—no complex membranes were needed.

    Key Findings in the 2025 Study:

    • Lab Setup: Scientists created a 170-micrometre chamber with a warm top (40°C) and cool bottom (27°C), simulating early Earth rock cracks.
    • DNA Test: They added DNA and a protein-making kit (PURExpress). Only in the warm-cool chamber did the DNA make green fluorescent protein (GFP), showing real protein synthesis.
    • Molecule Gathering: Essential items like DNA, magnesium, and phosphate ions gathered more at the bottom—up to 70 times more concentrated than at the top.
    • Cell-Like Behavior: Even without a membrane, the system kept useful molecules inside while letting waste escape, mimicking real cell selectivity.
    • Big Implication: This experiment supports the idea that life could start in simple natural environments using just heat, flow, and basic chemicals—long before full cells appeared.
    [UPSC 2018] Consider the following statements:

    1. The Earth’s magnetic field has reversed every few hundred thousand years.

    2. When the Earth was created more than 4000 million years ago, there was 54% oxygen and no carbon dioxide.

    3. When living organisms originated, they modified the early atmosphere of the Earth. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only * (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Cease the cess Low GST collections speak to the need for structural reforms

    Why in the News?

    On July 1, 2025, India marked eight years since the launch of the Goods and Services Tax (GST), but the occasion came with worrying signs for the economy. GST collections in June dropped to ₹1.85 lakh crore, the lowest in four months, and grew by just 6.2% year-on-year, the slowest growth in four years.

    What do low GST collections reveal about the economy and system efficiency?

    • Sluggish Economic Activity: As GST is a consumption-based tax, low collections indicate reduced demand and consumption, reflecting a slowdown in economic growth.
    • Tax System Inefficiencies: The marginal growth in net collections (just 3.3% after refunds) points to loopholes in compliance, delayed refunds, and inefficiencies in enforcement and administration.
    • Weak Revenue Buoyancy: Revenue from domestic transactions rose only 4.6%, barely outpacing inflation, showing limited buoyancy in the tax system despite a stable tax base.

    Why is the exclusion of fuel from GST debated?

    • Revenue Autonomy for States: Fuel taxes are a major independent revenue source for State governments. Including fuel under GST would shift this revenue to the GST pool, which is shared with the Centre, reducing the States’ financial autonomy.  
    • Undermines ‘One Nation, One Tax’ Goal: Excluding key commodities like petrol and diesel creates fragmentation in the GST system, violating the principle of tax uniformity. Eg: A truck transporting goods across states pays different fuel taxes, adding to logistics costs and compliance burden.
    • Public Demand for Price Rationalisation: Including fuel under GST could reduce retail prices, as GST rates are lower than the combined excise + VAT. This is especially crucial during inflationary periods. Eg: If petrol (currently taxed ~100%) comes under the 28% GST slab, it could make fuel significantly cheaper for consumers.

    What does “fewer GST slabs” mean?

    • It means merging some of these tax rates to move toward a simpler, more uniform GST system, such as: Possibly combining 12% and 18% into a single standard rate.
    • Current GST Structure: India has multiple GST slabs: 5%, 12%, 18%, 28%. Plus 0% (exempt) and special rates on certain goods/services.

    How will fewer GST slabs improve tax efficiency?

    • Simplifies Compliance for Businesses: Fewer slabs reduce confusion, errors in tax calculation, classification, and filing, especially for small businesses. Eg: A product like packaged snacks currently attracts different GST rates depending on branding, merging slabs avoids such disputes.
    • Reduces Tax Evasion and Litigation: Multiple slabs create room for misclassification and disputes over applicable rates. Fewer rates lead to clearer guidelines and fewer loopholes. Eg: Footwear priced above ₹1,000 is taxed at 18%, while below ₹1,000 it’s 5%—leading to price manipulation.
    • Boosts Consumption and Revenue Predictability: A simplified rate structure improves consumer confidence, reduces cascading effects, and encourages spending, improving overall collections. Eg: Countries like Singapore (7%) or New Zealand (15%) with uniform GST systems report higher compliance and stable revenue.

    What is the future of the GST Compensation Cess?

    • Originally meant to compensate States for GST losses for 5 years, extended till March 2026 to repay COVID-related borrowings. With its purpose served, it should be phased out rather than absorbed into GST rates.
    • Removing the cess will restore trust, reduce tax burden, and may stimulate urban consumption.

    Why is fiscal responsibility crucial for GST reforms?

    • Ensuring fiscal sustainability: Sustainable subsidies and managing the compensation burden are essential for maintaining healthy public finances. Eg: During COVID-19, the Centre had to borrow extensively to compensate States, leading to a rise in debt levels.
    • Strengthening Centre–State trust: Responsible fiscal conduct by both the Centre and States builds trust, which is critical for cooperative federalism. The GST Council functions best when transparency is ensured and non-shareable cesses are minimized to allow a higher share of central taxes to States.
    • Enabling long-term tax reforms: Fiscal prudence enables the government to invest in long-term reforms such as rationalising GST slabs, strengthening IT infrastructure, and introducing compliance incentives. These efforts can improve tax buoyancy and offset short-term revenue losses.

    How can the Centre–State balance be ensured? (Way forward)

    • Enhancing States’ Share in Central Taxes: The Centre should increase devolved funds under the Finance Commission framework to compensate for GST-linked revenue losses, especially if fuel and alcohol are brought under GST. Eg: Raising the tax devolution share beyond the current 41% can empower States financially.
    • Strengthening GST Council’s Cooperative Mechanism: Regular, consensus-based decision-making in the GST Council can improve Centre-State trust and ensure shared ownership of reforms. Eg: Joint committees for rate rationalisation or revenue monitoring can enhance transparency and equity.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2020] Explain the rationale behind the Goods and Services Tax (Compensation to States) Act of 2017. How has COVID-19 impacted the GST compensation fund and created new federal tensions?

    Linkage: The article explicitly states that the GST Compensation Cess was extended until March 2026 to repay loans taken by the Centre to compensate States, specifically due to COVID-19 having disrupted revenues. The question directly delves into the compensation mechanism, its impact due to the pandemic, and the resulting “federal tensions”, which aligns perfectly with the source’s discussion on the Centre-State fiscal relationship regarding GST.

  • WTO Agreement on Safeguards (AoS)

    Why in the News?

    Invoking the Agreement on Safeguards (AoS), India has notified the WTO of its plan to impose $724 million in retaliatory tariffs on the U.S. for breaching trade commitments through unilateral auto import duties.

    What is the Agreement on Safeguards (AoS)?

    • Overview: It is a World Trade Organization (WTO) treaty that allows countries to apply temporary trade barriers—called safeguard measures—when a domestic industry is harmed by a surge in imports.
    • Purpose in Practice: The agreement maintains global trade discipline, offering legal protection tools but with checks to avoid abuse.
    • Conditions for Use: Safeguards can only be used when there is clear evidence of serious injury or threat to domestic producers due to increased imports.
    • Rules-Based System: The agreement ensures safeguard actions are transparent, time-bound, and non-discriminatory, preventing misuse for permanent protectionism.
    • Key Rules:
      • Article 12.3: Before acting, a country must notify and consult with other WTO members who may be affected by the safeguard.
      • Article 8: If consultation fails, the affected country can retaliate by suspending trade benefits equal to the loss it suffered.
      • Ban on Informal Restrictions: AoS strictly prohibits voluntary export restraints or informal quotas that evade WTO rules, ensuring fairness.

    India’s Use of the AoS – The 2025 U.S. Tariff Case:

    • Trigger: The U.S. had imposed 25% tariffs on Indian-origin vehicles and parts in March 2025, which India claims are safeguard measures disguised as unilateral tariffs.
    • Violation of Rules: India alleges that the U.S. did not follow Article 12.3 (mandatory consultations) and thus violated both AoS and GATT 1994 rules.
    • Impact on Indian Exports: India estimates that $2.89 billion worth of exports have been affected and that the U.S. collected nearly $723.75 million in duties, matching India’s proposed retaliation.
    • India’s Justification: India asserts that this move is legal under WTO rules, not protectionist, and aims to defend its export interests while continuing trade talks with the U.S.

    India’s Changing Role in WTO Safeguard Policy:

    • Early Strategy (1995–2010): India was initially cautious at the WTO, accepting tough terms under TRIPS, GATS, and AoA, and rarely used legal tools like retaliation, focusing more on diplomatic solutions.
    • Recent Assertiveness (Post-2010): India now actively invokes WTO rules like AoS to protect its interests and has won key disputes—such as:
      • The solar panel case against the U.S.
      • Legal challenges to EU’s export restrictions on food.
    • Global Leadership Role: India has taken the lead among developing countries to protect food security rights and push for fairer global trade terms, especially at Bali (2013) and Nairobi (2015) WTO summits.

    Back2Basics: 

    TRIPS (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights)

    • WTO agreement (1995) setting minimum standards for IPR protection (patents, copyrights, etc.).
    • Enforced 20-year patent protection; India amended its Patent Act in 2005 to comply.
    • Allows compulsory licensing in emergencies (e.g., for medicines).

    GATS (General Agreement on Trade in Services)

    • WTO treaty covering international trade in services like IT, banking, and tourism.
    • Operates through 4 Modes of Supply:
      1. Mode 1 – Cross-border supply (e.g., online consulting)
      2. Mode 2 – Consumption abroad (e.g., medical tourism)
      3. Mode 3 – Commercial presence (e.g., foreign bank branch in India)
      4. Mode 4 – Movement of natural persons (e.g., Indian professionals working overseas)
    • India strongly supports Mode 4 for its skilled labour force.

     

    [UPSC 2015] The terms ‘Agreement on Agriculture’, ‘Agreement on the application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures’ and ‘Peace Clause’ appear in the news frequently in the context of the affairs of the:

    Options: (a) Food and Agricultural Organization (b) United Nations Framework Conference on Climate Change (c) World Trade Organization* (d) United Nations Environment Programme

     

  • Oil Exploration in the Andaman Basin

    Why in the News?

    The Union Minister for Petroleum has revealed that India is on the brink of a Guyana-like oil discovery in the Andaman Sea

    Do you know?

    Guyana, now a major oil-producing nation, has seen 47% average real GDP growth since 2022, driven by offshore oil.

     

    Oil Exploration in the Andaman Basin

    About the Oil Exploration in Andaman Basin:

    • Location & Scale: It lies in the southeastern Bay of Bengal and covers about 2.25 lakh sq. km, making it one of India’s largest underexplored offshore sedimentary basins.
    • Geological Importance: It shares tectonic and structural similarities with nearby hydrocarbon-rich basins in North Sumatra (Indonesia) and Irrawaddy-Margui (Myanmar).
    • Historical Restrictions: The area was long considered a ‘No-Go’ zone due to environmental and strategic reasons, preventing oil exploration until recently.
    • Scientific Breakthrough: In 2020, Oil India Ltd launched the Deep Andaman Offshore Survey, which discovered mud volcanoes and Baratang formations — signs of hydrocarbon activity.
    • Data Entry into National Records: The survey findings were added to the National Data Repository (NDR) in 2023, making crucial geological data available to investors.
    • Rising Strategic Interest: The basin is now seen as vital for India’s energy security due to its deepwater potential and ability to cut down oil imports.
    • Recent Collaborations: Companies like ONGC partnered with TotalEnergies (France) in 2023 to explore deepwater blocks in the basin.

    Policy Shift that Enabled Exploration:

    • Introduction of HELP: The Hydrocarbon Exploration and Licensing Policy (HELP) was introduced in 2016, replacing the older NELP system with a more industry-friendly framework.
    • Licensing Reform: HELP provides a single license for all hydrocarbons — oil, gas, shale, and coal bed methane — removing the need for separate permits.
    • Revenue Sharing System: Instead of auditing costs, the government now receives a fixed share of revenue, simplifying financial compliance and reducing disputes.
    • OALP and Investor Flexibility: The Open Acreage Licensing Policy (OALP) allows companies to bid for exploration blocks of their own choosing throughout the year, encouraging customized investment.
    • Use of Geological Data: The National Data Repository (NDR) helps companies make informed decisions using extensive geological and seismic information.
    • Market Freedom: Under HELP, companies have the freedom to price and market their oil and gas, which boosts competitiveness and attracts private players.
    • Royalty Incentives: A graded royalty system reduces rates for deepwater and ultra-deepwater blocks, offsetting high-risk exploration like in the Andaman.
    [UPSC 2006] Which one of the following companies is associated with the exploration and commercial production of oil in Barmer Sanchore basin of Rajasthan?

    Options: (a) Cairn Energy * (b) Unocal Corporation (c) Reliance Energy Ventures (d) ONGC

     

  • [pib] SAKSHAM-3000  

    Why in the News?

    The Ministry of Communications has launched SAKSHAM-3000, a 25.6 Tbps indigenous switch-cum-router, to boost India’s data, cloud, and telecom infrastructure, marking a major leap in advanced networking technology.

    What is SAKSHAM-3000?

    • Overview: It is a high-speed switch-cum-router developed by the Centre for Development of Telematics (C-DOT) to strengthen India’s digital infrastructure.
    • Indigenous Operating System: The device runs on CROS (C-DOT Router Operating System), enabling modular, scalable, and secure network operations.
    • Next-Gen Capability: It is designed for ultra-fast data transmission, offering up to 25.6 Terabits per second (Tbps) throughput.
    • Use Cases: It is suitable for data centres, 5G/6G networks, AI systems, and hyperscale computing clusters.
    • Cloud and Telecom Ready: It supports cloud-native deployments, legacy protocols, and future network architectures simultaneously.

    Technical Highlights and Capabilities:

    • Massive Throughput: It supports 32 ports of 400G Ethernet and multiple speeds from 1G to 400G, delivering full 25.6 Tbps capacity.
    • Wire-Speed Performance: Data packets are processed at line rate, ensuring real-time transmission with no bottlenecks.
    • Time-Sensitive Applications: It includes support for Precision Time Protocol (PTP) and Synchronous Ethernet (Sync-E) to ensure accurate timing in industrial and telecom networks.
    • Full Protocol Support: It is compatible with Layer-2 switching, IP routing, and Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) for broad network configurations.
    • Traffic Management: Features like Weighted Round Robin (WRR) and Weighted Random Early Detection (WRED) improve traffic handling and reduce congestion.
    • Energy Efficiency: It uses a power-optimized architecture, balancing high performance with low power consumption for sustainable data centre use.
    • Flexible Licensing: Enterprises and telecom providers can customize licensing models for cost-effective scalability based on specific deployment needs.
    [UPSC 2016] With reference to ‘LiFi’, recently in the news, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. It uses light as the medium for high-speed data transmission. 2. It is a wireless technology and is several times faster than ‘WiFi’.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

  • Species in news: Garcinia kusumae

    Why in the News?

    Researchers in Assam have discovered a new tree species, Garcinia kusumae, locally called thoikora, adding to the Garcinia genus in a notable botanical find.

    About Garcinia kusumae:

    • Species Identity: Garcinia kusumae is a newly discovered evergreen tree species that is endemic to Assam, India.
    • Genus and Local Name: It belongs to the Garcinia genus, locally called thoikora in Assamese.
    • Discovery: It was discovered in 2024 by Jatindra Sarma, during a field survey in Bamunbari, Baksa district.
    • Botanical Traits: It is dioecious, grows up to 18 metres, flowers between February and April, and fruits between May and June.
    • Distinct Features: It differs from similar species by having up to 15 staminate flowers per fascicle, fewer stamens, and blackish resinous berries.
    • Ethnobotanical Uses: Its fruit is used in sherbet, fish curries, and for diabetes and dysentery remedies; the seed aril is eaten raw with condiments.

    What is the Garcinia Genus?

    • Taxonomy: Garcinia is the largest genus in the Clusiaceae family, comprising trees and shrubs.
    • Geographical Spread: It is found in tropical regions of Africa, Southeast Asia, and Australasia, especially in rainforests.
    • Notable Characteristics: The genus is known for floral diversity, medicinal value, and culinary applications.
    • Presence in India: India hosts 33 species and 7 varieties of Garcinia, with Assam having 12 species and 3 varieties.
    • Famous Species: Commonly known species include Garcinia indica (kokum), Garcinia cowa, and Garcinia mangostana (mangosteen).
    • Utility and Significance: It is important for ethnobotanical uses, rural livelihoods, and climate-resilient forestry.
    • Traditional Practices: Several species are used in traditional food, medicine, and rituals.
    [UPSC 2016] Recently, our scientists have discovered a new and distinct species of banana plant which attains a height of about 11 metres and has orange-coloured fruit pulp.

    In which part of India has it been discovered?

    Options: (a) Andaman Islands* (b) Anaimalai Forests (c) Maikala Hills (d) Tropical rain forests of northeast