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GS Paper: GS3

  • What is A-to-I mRNA Editing?

    Why in the News?

    Chinese researchers found that A-to-I mRNA editing, once considered random, plays a key role in development, especially in the wheat pathogen Fusarium graminearum.

    About A-to-I mRNA Editing:

    • mRNA: Our cells use DNA as a guide to make proteins. First, they copy DNA into messenger RNA (mRNA).
    • A-to-I editing: This is a process where the letter adenosine (A) in mRNA is changed to inosine (I) by special enzymes called ADARs. The cell reads inosine as guanine (G), which can change the protein being made.
    • Why it matters:
      • It helps the cell make different versions of proteins without changing the DNA.
      • It can remove early stop signals, allowing full proteins to be made.
      • It helps the cell adapt to different conditions or stages of life.

    What did scientists discover in the fungus?

    • Fungal Discovery: Scientists found that the fungus edits over 26,000 mRNA sites during reproduction, not during normal growth.
    • Development Role: This editing fixes early stop signals in key genes, helping the fungus develop and reproduce properly.
    • Stress Adaptation: Some genes work better unedited under stress, showing the fungus edits only when needed for survival.

    Does this happen in humans?

    Yes, A-to-I editing is common in humans:

    • In the brain: It helps with brain growth, memory, and learning.
    • In the immune system: It helps fight infections and control inflammation.

    Health Implications:

    • Health Risks: Faulty editing is linked to epilepsy and certain cancers.
    • Therapeutic Potential: Understanding this process can lead to new treatments and improve gene-editing technologies.
    [UPSC 2016] In the context of the developments in Bioinformatics, the term ‘transcriptome’, sometimes seen in the news, refers to:

    Options: (a) a range of enzymes used in genome editing (b) the full range of mRNA molecules expressed by an organism * (c) the description of the mechanism of gene expression (d) a mechanism of genetic mutations taking place in cells

     

  • RBI’s Transfer of ‘Surplus’ to the Government

    Why in the News?

    The RBI may transfer a record ₹2.5–₹3 lakh crore surplus for 2024–25 after its recent review of its Economic Capital Framework (ECF).

    About Surplus Transfer by RBI:

    • Legal Basis: Under Section 47 of the RBI Act, 1934, the RBI must transfer its net surplus from its income to the central government.
    • Tax Exemption: As per Section 48, the RBI is exempt from income tax and direct taxes.
    • Timeline: RBI has recently changed its accounting year from June-July to April-May.
    • Recent Transfers: In 2023–24, RBI transferred a record ₹2.11 lakh crore; estimates for 2024–25 range between ₹2.5 and 3 lakh crore.
    • Reserve Allocation: Some surplus may be set aside for contingency or asset development funds.
    • Policy Debate: The government often seeks higher transfers, while the RBI stresses on maintaining financial stability and autonomy.
    • Past Disagreements: Tensions have occurred but are usually resolved through mutual agreement.

    How does the RBI generate its surplus?

    • Foreign Investments: RBI earns returns from investing in foreign government bonds, treasury bills, and deposits with other central banks.
    • Domestic Bonds: It receives interest on Indian government securities (G-secs) held in its portfolio.
    • Bank Lending: Income is earned by lending short-term funds to commercial banks via repo operations.
    • Commission Services: The RBI charges commissions for managing borrowings and public debt for the central and state governments.
    • Main Expenditure: Costs include printing currency, staff salaries and pensions, bank commissions, and dealer fees.
    • Net Surplus: The surplus is what remains after expenses, provisions, and reserves are accounted for.

    Back2Basics: Economic Capital Framework (ECF)

    • Purpose: The ECF guides how much capital RBI must retain and how much surplus can be transferred.
    • Y.H. Malegam Committee (2013): It reviewed the adequacy of reserves and surplus distribution policy in 2013, recommended a higher transfer to the government.
    • Introduction: Finalised in 2019, based on a committee led by Bimal Jalan.
    • Goal: Seeks to balance government funding needs with RBI’s financial resilience.
    • Reserve Components: Defines key buffers like the Contingency Risk Buffer (CRB), Revaluation Reserves, and Asset Development Fund.
    • Minimum CRB: Requires at least 5.5% of RBI’s balance sheet to be held as contingency reserve.
    • Transfer Stability: Allows for more consistent surplus transfers when RBI’s earnings are strong.

     

    [UPSC 2021] In India, the central bank’s function as the ‘lender of last resort’ usually refers to which of the following:

    1.Lending to trade and industry bodies when they fail to borrow from other sources.

    2.Providing liquidity to the banks having a temporary crisis.

    3.Lending to governments to finance budgetary deficits.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b)  2 only * (c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 only

     

  • 125 Years of Kodaikanal Solar Observatory (KoSO) 

    Why in the News?

    The Department of Posts has released a commemorative postage stamp to mark 125 years of the Kodaikanal Solar Observatory (KoSO)—one of India’s oldest and most significant astronomical research centres dedicated to studying the Sun.

    About the Kodaikanal Solar Observatory (KoSO):

    • Founding: Established in the late 19th century, KoSO was established in 1899 after atmospheric surveys by Charles Michie Smith.
    • Location: It is located in Kodaikanal, Tamil Nadu, in the Palani Hills, chosen for its excellent sky conditions.
    • Early Observations: Initially focused on observing sunspots, solar prominences, and solar radiation.
    • Modern Equipment: Now equipped with the H-alpha telescope (for flares and prominences) and WARM (for high-resolution sunspot imaging).
    • Institutional Role: Became part of the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) in April 1971.
    • Scientific Importance: KoSO contributes to understanding the Sun’s effect on Earth’s climate and space weather.

    Important Observations / Discoveries:

    • Evershed Effect (1909): Discovered by John Evershed, it was the first observation of radial gas outflows in sunspots, a key finding in solar physics.
    • Historic Solar Archive (1904–2017): Created one of the world’s longest continuous solar datasets.
    • Digitization: First Indian observatory to digitise solar data (since 1984); currently maintains a digital archive of 1.48 lakh images (~10 TB).
    • Wider Scientific Work: Extended research into cosmic rays, radio astronomy, ionospheric physics, and stellar astrophysics over the decades.
    [UPSC 2016] Discuss India’s achievements in the field of Space Science and Technology. How the application of this technology has helped India in its socio-economic development?

     

  • India assembles First Chromosome-Level Genome of the Yak

    Why in the News?

    Specialists from the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) have successfully assembled the first-ever chromosome-level genome of the Indian yak (Bos grunniens).

    India assembles First Chromosome-Level Genome of the Yak

    About the Indian Yak (Bos grunniens):

    • The Indian yak, often referred to as the ‘ship of the Himalayas’, plays a crucial role in the high-altitude economies of India.
    • Features: It is known for its resilience and adaptability to extreme environments. It provides meat, milk, and manure and is a vital mode of transportation.
    • Habitat: It inhabits the regions above 7,000 feet in Ladakh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and Himachal Pradesh.
    • Conservation Status: It is assessed as Vulnerable under the IUCN Red List and included in CITES Appendix I and Schedule I in the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.

    Significance of the Research:

    • Mapping Method: The study used long-read sequencing and advanced bioinformatics to map yak genes with high precision.
    • Feature Identification: The genome will help identify genes for cold tolerance, disease resistance, and milk production.
    • Comparative Applications: It will allow comparative studies with other bovine species to discover valuable genetic traits (alleles).
    • Breeding and Conservation: The data will support better breeding strategies and the creation of conservation plans for yaks.
    • Livelihood Impact: This research supports sustainable development and could improve the livelihoods of Himalayan yak herders through targeted livestock improvements.
    [UPSC 2017] According to the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, which of the following animals cannot be hunted by any person except under some provisions provided by law?

    1. Gharial 2. Indian wild ass 3. Wild buffalo

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*

     

  • Scientists create 2D Metal Sheets using High-Pressure Technique

    Why in the News?

    A team of researchers from top Chinese scientific institutions has reported a major breakthrough in the creation of atomically thin 2D metal sheets using a novel high-pressure sandwich method.

    About the 2D Metal Created:

    • Definition: 2D metals are only one or two atoms thick, so electrons can move in just two dimensions.
    • Quantum Confinement: Electrons in 2D metals are restricted to specific energy levels, similar to how they behave in atoms.
    • Scientific Interest: Metals like bismuth, tin, and lead in 2D form are being studied for their electrical, magnetic, and quantum properties.
    • Applications: Their special properties make them useful for quantum computing, sensors, and advanced electronics.

    Technologies Involved:

    • Quantum Dots: These are tiny semiconductors where electrons are tightly confined, creating quantised energy states.
    • Quantum Confinement: In quantum dots, electrons can’t move freely in any direction, leading to discrete energy levels.
    • Link to 2D Metals: In 2D metals, electrons are confined in two dimensions, changing conductivity, magnetism, and optical behaviour.
    • Process: Chinese scientists created 2D metals by sandwiching metal powder between two MoS₂-coated sapphire layers.
    • Steps involved: The structure is heated, twisted, and pressed to form ultra-thin sheets, then cooled and peeled off.
    • Material Choice: MoS₂ and sapphire were chosen for their strength, smoothness, and low chemical reaction with metal.

    Note: 

    Quantum confinement occurs when a particle like an electron is trapped in an extremely small space, such as a nanoscale material. This restriction changes its energy levels, making them discrete instead of continuous. As a result, the material’s properties—like color and conductivity—can change with size.

     

    [UPSC 2012] Graphene is frequently in the news recently. What is its importance?

    1. It is a two-dimensional material and has good electrical conductivity.

    2. It is one of the thinnest but strongest materials tested so far.

    3. It is entirely made of silicon and has high optical transparency.

    4. It can be used as ‘conducting electrodes’ required for touch screens, LCDs and organic LEDs.

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 2 and 4 only* (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

     

  • Chandrayaan-5 (LUPEX Mission) enters Preliminary Design Phase

    Why in the News?

    India and Japan have begun the preliminary design phase of the Chandrayaan-5 mission, also known as LUPEX (Lunar Polar Exploration).

    Back2Basics: Legacy of Chandrayaan Missions

    • Chandrayaan-1 (2008): First mission, focused on mineral and chemical mapping.
    • Chandrayaan-2 (2019): Orbiter mission with 98% success.
    • Chandrayaan-3 (2023): Achieved a historic soft landing on the Moon’s south pole.
    • Chandrayaan-4 (Upcoming, 2027):
      • It is a planned lunar sample return mission by ISRO, expected to launch around 2027, with the landing site near Statio Shiv Shakti at the lunar south pole.
      • The mission involves five modules launched on two LVM-3 rockets, later docked in Earth orbit to form an integrated spacecraft.
      • A robotic arm and drill will collect 2–3 kg of surface and sub-surface lunar samples for return to Earth.
      • The Re-entry Module (RM) will re-enter Earth’s atmosphere with the samples using ballistic re-entry, marking India’s first attempt at sample return.
    • Chandrayaan-5 / LUPEX: Aimed at deeper exploration with global participation.
    • Manned Lunar Mission: Prospected lunar landing by 2040.

    About Chandrayaan-5/LUPEX Mission:

    • It is a collaborative mission between ISRO and JAXA.
    • Approval: Cabinet approval for the mission was granted on March 10, 2025.
    • Launch: It will carry a 6.5-tonne payload and launch aboard Japan’s H3 rocket in 2027–28.
    • Collaboration: The lander is being developed by ISRO and the 350-kg rover by JAXA.
    • Duration: The mission is expected to last 100 days, with a possible extension of one year.
    • Mission Goals and Objectives:
      • Explore water and regolith in the lunar south pole’s Permanently Shadowed Regions (PSRs).
      • Drill into the Moon’s surface, analyse soil samples, and perform in-situ experiments.
      • Assess water content, quality, and analyse surface volatiles using advanced instrumentation.
      • Exploration of the far side of the Moon.

    Scientific Collaboration and Instruments:

    • A total of 7 scientific instruments will be onboard the mission.
    • ISRO’s Contribution: Development of the lander; creation of one sensor in a major four-sensor instrument.
    • JAXA’s Contribution: Development of the rover and three sensors in the same instrument; Rover is designed to climb 25° inclines and operate on a complex battery charging protocol.
    • ESA (European Space Agency): Developing a mass spectrometer.
    • NASA: Contributing neutron spectrometers.
    [UPSC 2009] In the context of space technology, what is Bhuvan, recently in the news?

    Options: (a) A mini satellite launched by ISRO for promoting the distance education in India (b) The name given to the next Moon Impact Probe, for Chandrayaan-II (c) A geoportal of ISRO with 3D imaging capabilities of India* (d) A space telescope developed by India

     

  • Under control: On the latest inflation data 

    Why in the News?

    Retail inflation dropped to 3.16% in April, marking its lowest level in nearly six years. This shows that prices are rising more slowly, bringing relief to consumers and policymakers.

    What caused the recent fall in retail and wholesale inflation in April?

    • Sharp Drop in Vegetable Prices: Retail inflation was driven down by a nearly 11% drop in vegetable prices. Eg: Wholesale potato prices fell by 24.3% compared to April last year.
    • Falling Crude Oil and Fuel Prices: Crude oil and natural gas inflation hit a 22-month low of -15.55%. Eg: Petrol prices contracted by 7.7%, and diesel by 5.04% at the wholesale level.
    • Government Measures to Control Prices: Actions like open market foodgrain releases, buffer stock management, and eased imports helped stabilize supply. Eg: These steps helped prevent food shortages and kept overall food inflation at 2.55%, a 22-month low.

    Why is the contraction in vegetable prices considered partly due to the base effect?

    • High Inflation Last Year (Base Effect): In April last year, vegetable inflation was very high, in the range of 27%-30%. Eg: A sharp rise last year creates a high base, making even stable or slightly falling prices this year appear like a large drop.
    • Statistical Comparison Distortion: Inflation is measured year-on-year, so a high base can exaggerate the percentage fall in the current period.Eg: If tomato prices were ₹100 last year and are ₹90 now, it shows a 10% fall—but last year’s ₹100 was unusually high.
    • Not Solely Due to Supply Improvement: The large fall in prices this year is not only because of better supply or government action but also due to last year’s spike. Eg: Last year’s shortages due to unseasonal rains had led to higher prices, inflating the base.

    How have government actions helped in easing inflation?

    • Strengthening Buffer Stocks: The government has maintained adequate buffer stocks of food items like rice, wheat, and pulses to manage supply shocks. Eg: Releasing pulses from buffer stocks during price spikes helped stabilise market supply and reduce inflationary pressure.
    • Open Market Sales to Regulate Prices: Through open market operations, the government released surplus food items into the market to control prices. Eg: Open sale of onions and tomatoes by agencies like NAFED helped bring down retail prices during seasonal spikes.
    • Relaxation of Import Restrictions:  The government eased import norms and reduced import duties on key commodities during shortages. Eg: Reduction in import duties on edible oils and pulses led to higher supply and reduced food inflation.

    What policy actions are expected from the RBI and the government based on the latest inflation data? (Way forward)

    • Likely Cut in Interest Rates by RBI: With inflation easing, especially retail inflation falling for six consecutive months, the RBI’s Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) may cut policy rates to support growth. Eg: The RBI might reduce the repo rate in the upcoming June review to boost borrowing and investment.
    • Reduction in Fuel Prices by Oil Marketing Companies: With crude oil inflation hitting a 22-month low, the government is expected to direct public sector oil companies to cut petrol, diesel, and LPG prices. Eg: Despite a 42% fall in global crude prices over three years, retail fuel prices remained almost unchanged; a correction is now anticipated.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2024] What are the causes of persistent high food inflation in India? Comment on the effectiveness of the monetary policy of the RBI to control this type of inflation.

    Linkage: “India’s Easing Inflation and Policy Implications” discusses the latest inflation data, noting the easing of both retail and wholesale inflation, largely driven by a contraction in vegetable and pulse prices.

  • [15th May 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Operation Sindoor — a reshaping of confrontation

    PYQ Relevance:

    [UPSC 2021] How is S-400 air defence missile system different from any other system presently available in the world?

    Linkage: Air defence systems are vital in modern warfare like Operation Sindoor for controlling the skies and protecting against enemy air strikes, including missiles.  

     

    Mentor’s Comment: Operation Sindoor is no longer just a conflict between two countries. It shows how wars are now fought around the world, with new technology, smart strategies, and control of information changing the way military battles happen.

    Today’s editorial explains how Operation Sindoor has changed the way military conflicts happen. This information is useful for preparing GS Paper II (International Relations) and GS Paper III (Defence).

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    The recent India-Pakistan standoff shows an important change in how wars are fought in today’s world.

    How has Operation Sindoor reshaped the nature of military confrontation?

    • Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)/Drones: India used SkyStriker Kamikaze drones for precision strikes, while Pakistan deployed 300–400 Turkish-made Songar drones across 36 locations, marking a shift to unmanned, low-risk, and high-impact warfare.
    • Swarm Drone Technology: The large-scale use of drone swarms by Pakistan showcased how mass deployment of inexpensive, expendable drones can overwhelm enemy defences and replace traditional air force formations.
    • Layered Air Defence Systems: India’s defence relied on a combination of Akash, QRSAM, S-400 (Russia), and Barak-8 (India-Israel) systems, reflecting a transition from fixed missile platforms to multi-layered, dynamic defence networks.
    • Real-time Digital Integration Systems: The Akashteer system allowed India to digitally integrate radar inputs for real-time threat assessment and response, enabling smarter and quicker decision-making in combat.
    • Integrated Air Command and Control System (IACCS): IACCS enabled seamless coordination between the Army, Navy, and Air Force, turning joint operations from theory into an operational reality and enhancing battlefield synchronization.

    How have drones transformed India’s aerial warfare strategy?

    • Unmanned Combat: India has shifted from relying on costly manned fighter jets to using drones, enabling precision strikes with minimal risk to personnel. Eg: Deployment of SkyStriker Kamikaze drones for targeted attacks during Operation Sindoor.
    • Swarm Warfare: The ability to deploy large numbers of inexpensive drones allows India to overwhelm enemy defences through swarm tactics, increasing operational effectiveness. Eg: Use of multiple expendable drones to saturate Pakistan’s air defence systems.
    • Intelligence and Precision: Drones provide real-time reconnaissance and intelligence gathering, improving accuracy and reducing collateral damage in strikes. Eg: SkyStriker drones probing Pakistan’s air defence and conducting precise strikes with minimal human risk.

    Why is information warfare crucial in the India-Pakistan standoff?

    • Strategic Weapon Beyond Propaganda: Information warfare has evolved from mere propaganda to a powerful strategic tool that can influence perceptions and morale. Eg: Pakistan circulated doctored videos and fabricated claims to manipulate international and domestic opinions.
    • Psychological Impact on Morale: It aims to weaken the enemy’s resolve by creating confusion, fear, and doubt among both military personnel and civilians. Eg: Disinformation campaigns targeting India’s morale during the standoff.
    • Control of Narratives: Controlling information flow helps shape global and domestic narratives, influencing diplomatic support and international response. Eg: Both India and Pakistan using social media to project their respective versions of events.
    • Creation of Strategic Ambiguity: Manipulating information can create uncertainty and complicate the opponent’s decision-making process. Eg: Use of conflicting reports and misinformation to keep adversaries guessing about actual military capabilities and intentions.

    What are the three key doctrines outlined by the Prime Minister in his first speech on Operation Sindoor?

    1. Decisive Retaliation on India’s Terms: India will respond firmly and appropriately to any terrorist attack, delivering a befitting response strictly on its terms and taking action against all sources of terrorism.
    2. No Tolerance for Nuclear Blackmail: India will not tolerate nuclear blackmail and will strike precisely and decisively at terrorist hideouts operating under the shield of nuclear threats.
    3. No Distinction Between Terrorists and their Sponsors: India will treat the government sponsoring terrorism and the terrorist masterminds as the same, continuing decisive steps to counter state-sponsored terrorism and protect the nation.

    Way forward: 

    • Enhance Indigenous Innovation: Accelerate the development and deployment of homegrown advanced technologies like AI-enabled drone swarms, next-gen air defence, and electronic warfare to maintain a strategic edge over Chinese-origin systems.
    • Strengthen Joint Operations & Intelligence Sharing: Improve seamless integration among armed forces and boost real-time intelligence to swiftly counter emerging threats from adversaries using sophisticated foreign defence platforms.

  • How did India develop genome edited rice?

    Why in the News?

    Union Agriculture Minister Shivraj Singh Chouhan recently said that India is the first country in the world to create rice varieties using genome editing technology.

    What are the new varieties?

    A team of researchers from different institutions, led by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), developed two new rice varieties — DRR Dhan 100 (called Kamala), made from the high-yielding Samba Mahsuri rice, and Pusa DST Rice 1, made from the Maruteru 1010 (MTU1010) variety.

    What are the benefits of the new rice varieties Kamala and Pusa DST Rice 1?

    • Higher Yield: Both varieties produce more rice per hectare than their parent strains. Eg: Kamala yields 5.37 tonnes/ha vs. Samba Mahsuri’s 4.5 tonnes/ha; Pusa DST Rice 1 yields 3,508 kg/ha, which is 9.66% more than MTU1010’s 3,199 kg/ha.
    • Drought Tolerance: Kamala is more resilient to drought, ensuring stable harvests during water shortages. Eg: Farmers can harvest good crops with less water in drought-prone areas using Kamala.
    • Early Maturity: Kamala matures 20 days earlier, reducing resource use and allowing faster crop cycles. Eg: Early harvest saves water and fertilizer, enabling farmers to grow a second crop sooner.
    • Salinity and Alkalinity Resistance: Pusa DST Rice 1 tolerates coastal salinity and alkaline soils better than its parent, boosting yield in tough environments. Eg: It yields 30.4% more under coastal salinity and 14.66% more under alkalinity than MTU1010.
    • Reduced Environmental Impact: Early maturity of Kamala lowers methane emissions from rice fields, helping fight climate change. Eg: Shorter growing period means less methane released compared to traditional rice varieties.

    Why are there objections to the genome-edited rice varieties?

    • Lack of Transparency: There is concern that the genome-edited rice varieties were announced without adequate field-level data being shared publicly, making the scientific claims appear premature. Eg: Venugopal Badaravada, a former ICAR governing body member, criticized the lack of transparency and was later expelled, raising concerns about institutional accountability.
    • Regulatory Concerns: Critics argue that exempting genome-edited crops (especially SDN-1 and SDN-2) from GM regulations is legally questionable and may bypass biosafety evaluations. Eg: The Coalition for a GM-Free India stated that de-regulating gene editing is “outright illegal” under India’s current biosafety framework.
    • Seed Sovereignty and Intellectual Property Rights (IPR): Activists fear that the gene-editing tools used are patented, which could threaten farmers’ seed rights and give control to private corporations. Eg: Concerns were raised about IPR entanglements with the technologies used in Kamala and Pusa DST Rice 1, potentially compromising India’s food and seed sovereignty.

    When will the new rice seeds be available for farmers?

    The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) anticipates that certified seeds of these varieties will be available to farmers within two years, following the completion of necessary processes such as Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) registration and seed multiplication.

    Way forward: 

    • Ensure Transparent Evaluation: Conduct multi-location field trials and publicly share performance data to build scientific credibility and public trust.
    • Safeguard Farmer Rights and Regulatory Oversight: Develop a clear IPR policy and establish robust, independent biosafety review mechanisms to protect seed sovereignty and address legal concerns.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2020] In what way have the science-based technologies triggered off striking changes in agriculture?

    Linkage: Genome editing is a science-based technology that represents a significant advancement capable of triggering changes in agriculture by developing improved crop varieties.

  • India eases Solar Panel Efficiency Norms for Off-Grid Rural Projects

    Why in the News?

    The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) has lowered the efficiency requirement for off-grid solar panels to make rural electrification easier and more affordable.

    About India’s Off-Grid Solar Programme:

    • About: The programme was launched by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy to provide solar energy access in regions without reliable grid electricity.
    • Mission Framework: Implemented under the National Solar Mission (2010), it aimed to install 2,000 megawatt-peak (MW-P) of off-grid and decentralised systems by 2022.
    • Phased Implementation:
      1. Phase I (2010–2014) targeted 200 MW-P capacity.
      2. Phase II (2014–2017) expanded to 500 MW-P with a focus on lighting, pumps, and study lamps.
      3. Phase III (2018–2021) emphasised solar streetlights, study lamps, and solar plants for public institutions.
    • Restructuring: Solar pumps were moved to the Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan scheme (PM-KUSUM), and solar home lights were integrated into the Saubhagya Scheme.
    • Key Applications: Included solar home lighting systems, streetlights, lanterns, study lamps, power packs, and water pumps for irrigation and drinking.

    India’s Progress in Off-Grid Solar Energy:

    • Installed Capacity: As of April 2025, India’s total solar capacity reached 107.95 gigawatts, with 4.98 gigawatts from off-grid systems.
    • Capacity Growth: From 2016 to 2024, solar installations grew from 172.45 gigawatts to 216.86 gigawatts.
    • Recent Trends: In 2024, adoption rose as solar appliances became more affordable in remote and underserved regions.
    • Impact: The programme has been vital for electrification in areas where grid expansion is limited by geography, cost, or infrastructure.

    Tap to know more about India’s Solar Capacity and its Global Position.

    [UPSC 2020] With reference to solar water pumps, consider the following statements:

    1. Solar power can be used for running surface pumps and not for submersible pumps.

    2. Solar power can be used for running centrifugal pumps and not the ones with piston.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2*