Deep-sea researchers have initiated a groundbreaking project to explore dark oxygen, a form of oxygen produced in complete darkness on the ocean floor.
What is Dark Oxygen?
Dark oxygen refers to oxygen produced at extreme ocean depths without the involvement of photosynthesis.
This process occurs in total darkness on the ocean floor, challenging the traditional understanding that sunlight is necessary for oxygen generation.
It was first discovered in 2024 by researchers studying deep-sea environments.
The strange nodules found at a depth of 13,000 feet act like natural batteries, splitting water molecules into oxygen and hydrogen using electrical charges.
These nodules function in areas where light does not penetrate, under extreme pressure and low-temperature conditions.
Occurrence:
Found in specific deep-sea zones, particularly in regions characterized by unique electrochemical activity.
Occurs in places previously considered incapable of supporting oxygenproduction.
Features and Significance of Dark Oxygen:
Unlike traditional oxygen production, dark oxygen does not rely on photosynthesis or sunlight.
It is driven by electrochemical reactions occurring naturally in the ocean floor.
Strange nodules on the ocean floor possess an electric charge, enabling them to split water molecules into oxygen and hydrogen.
The process releases hydrogen, which could potentially serve as an energy source for microbial life in these regions.
PYQ:
[2012] Which one of the following sets of elements was primarily responsible for the origin of life on the Earth?
The 1st Battalion of the National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) celebrated its 20th Raising Day.
About theNational Disaster Response Force (NDRF)
Details
About
Constituted under Section 44 of the Disaster Management Act, 2005 for specialized disaster response.
Functions under the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) and is headed by a Director General (DG), typically an IPS officer.
Initially established in 2006 with 8 battalions, now expanded to 16 battalions.
Operates under the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), chaired by the Prime Minister.
Powers and Functions
Primary Role: Rescue and relief operations during natural and man-made disasters such as floods, cyclones, earthquakes, landslides, building collapses, and accidents.
Strategic Deployment: Resources are pre-positioned during imminent disaster situations to minimize damage.
Active in international relief efforts, including the 2011 Fukushima disaster and the 2015 Nepal Earthquake.
Provides multi-skilled, highly specialized responses, with capabilities for handling complex disaster scenarios.
Composition
Consists of 16 battalions, each with 1,149 personnel.
Personnel are drawn from Central Armed Police Forces (CAPFs): CRPF, BSF, CISF, ITBP, SSB, and Assam Rifles.
Members are trained in disaster response, relief, and recovery operations.
Focus on proactive availability and pre-positioning during disasters to ensure quick response.
IMPORTANT: National Disaster Response Fund (NDRF)
The NDRF is a statutory body constituted under the Disaster Management Act, 2005.
It supplements State Disaster Response Fund (SDRF) of a State, in case of a disaster of severe nature, provided adequate funds are not available in SDRF.
The July 2015 guidelines states that natural calamities of cyclone, drought, earthquake, fire, flood, tsunami, hailstorm, landslide, avalanche, cloud burst, pest attack and cold wave and frost will qualify for immediate relief assistance from NDRF.
NDRF is managed in the “Public Accounts” under “Reserve Funds not bearing interest”.
The Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) audits the accounts of NDRF.
PYQ:
[2020] Discuss the recent measures initiated in disaster management by the Government of India departing from the earlier reactive approach.
The Madhya Pradesh High Court gave authorities four weeks to dispose of the waste, nearly 40 years after the gas disaster that killed over 4,000 people and left thousands more injured or disabled.
What are the plans for the hazardous gas leak waste?
Waste Transportation: The Madhya Pradesh government has successfully transported 358 tonnes of hazardous waste from the Union Carbide facility in Bhopal to the Treatment, Storage, and Disposal Facility (TSDF) in Pithampur, Dhar district, following a court order.
Incineration Process: The waste will be incinerated at the Pithampur facility, with an initial timeline of three to nine months for complete disposal, depending on emissions and safety assessments during the process.
Emission Controls: To mitigate air pollution, the incinerator will utilize four-layer special filters to ensure that the smoke emitted does not contaminate the surrounding environment.
Post-Incineration Measures: After incineration, the resulting ash will be covered with a two-layer membrane and buried in a landfill to prevent any contact with soil and water sources.
Expert Supervision: The entire disposal process will be overseen by officials from the Central Pollution Control Board and State Pollution Control Board, ensuring compliance with safety regulations and environmental standards.
How much has been allocated to incinerate the waste and deposit the residue at a landfill in Pithampur?
The Central government has allocated ₹126 crore (approximately $15 million) to facilitate the incineration of this waste and ensure that any resulting residue is safely deposited in a landfill at the Pithampur facility.
Why have there been protests?
Health and Environmental Fears: Residents are worried that the incineration of toxic waste will pose significant health risks and environmental hazards to the local population and surrounding areas, with claims that it could lead to harmful emissions affecting air quality.
Historical Context: The protests are fueled by the legacy of the 1984 Bhopal gas tragedy, which resulted in thousands of deaths and long-term health issues. This history has heightened sensitivity to any activities involving hazardous materials in the region.
Community Mobilization: Local organizations, such as the ‘Pithampur Bachao Samiti’, have organized bandhs (shutdowns) and demonstrations, leading to widespread participation from residents who are calling for the waste to be returned to Bhopal instead of being incinerated locally.
What is the 1984 Bhopal gas tragedy?
The Bhopal gas tragedy, also known as the Bhopal disaster, occurred on the night of December 2-3, 1984, at the Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL) pesticide plant in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India.
Chemical Leak: The disaster was triggered by a leak of approximately 40 tons of methyl isocyanate (MIC), a highly toxic gas used in pesticide production. This gas escaped from a storage tank due to a combination of operational failures and safety deficiencies at the plant.
Immediate Impact: The gas cloud spread over densely populated areas surrounding the plant, leading to immediate chaos and panic. Official estimates indicate that around 3,787 people died as a direct result of the gas exposure, while other estimates suggest that the death toll could be as high as 15,000 to 20,000 over subsequent years due to related health complications.
Injuries and Long-term Effects: Over 558,000 individuals suffered injuries ranging from respiratory problems to permanent disabilities. Many survivors continue to experience health issues related to their exposure to the toxic gas.
Way forward:
Strengthen Public Engagement and Transparency: Conduct comprehensive awareness campaigns involving scientific experts to address community concerns, ensuring transparent communication about safety measures, emission controls, and environmental safeguards during the incineration process.
Enhance Monitoring and Compliance: Implement stringent real-time monitoring of emissions and groundwater quality during and after waste disposal, supervised by independent experts and regulatory bodies, to uphold environmental and public health standards.
Mains PYQ:
Q What are the impediments in disposing the huge quantities of discarded solid wastes which are continuously being generated? How do we remove safely the toxic wastes that have been accumulating in our habitable environment? (UPSC IAS/2018)
A recent faunal survey conducted in the Munnar Wildlife Division has documented 24 new species of birds, butterflies, and odonates, enriching its biodiversity checklist.
Which are the surveyed sites?
All the surveyed national parks and wildlife sanctuaries are located in Kerala, India, specifically in the Idukki district:
Mathikettan Shola National Park (MSNP): It is a biodiversity hotspot and part of the Western Ghats.
Pambadum Shola National Park (PSNP): It is Kerala’s smallest national park and home to unique flora and fauna.
Anamudi Shola National Park (ANP): Named after Anamudi, the highest peak in South India.
Kurinjimala Wildlife Sanctuary (KWLS): Located in Idukki, it protects the habitat of the Neelakurinji (Strobilanthes kunthiana), a flower that blooms once every 12 years.
Eravikulam National Park (ENP): Famous for the Nilgiri Tahr.
Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary (CWLS): Situated in the rain-shadow region of the Western Ghats, near the Kerala-Tamil Nadu border in Idukki.
Key Highlights of the Survey
New Species Added: 24 new species, including birds (11), butterflies (8), and odonates (5).
Total Documentation:
Birds: 217 species recorded; checklist updated to 258.
Butterflies: 166 species recorded; checklist updated to 246.
Odonates: 5 new records, checklist updated to 58 species.
Notable Wildlife Observed: Mammals like Nilgiri Tahr, tigers, leopards, and elephants; 12 species of reptiles and amphibians.
About the Added Species
Birds:
New Additions: Brown Hawk Owl, Barred Buttonquail, Spotted Owlet, Mottled Wood Owl, Baya Weaver, Red Munia, Richard’s Pipit, Jerdon’s Bushlark, Golden-Headed Cisticola, Large Grey Babbler, Chestnut-Bellied Nuthatch.
Highlights: Nilgiri Wood Pigeon, Steppe Eagle, Peregrine Falcon, Indian Grey Hornbill, and Blue-eared Kingfisher.
The Union Cabinet approved the construction of a third launchpad at Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh. In 2024, PM laid the foundation stone for ISRO’s second rocket launchport at Kulasekarapattinam in Tamil Nadu’s Thoothukudi district. (The first one being the Dr Abdul Kalam Island, Odisha.)
Who was Satish Dhawan?
Born in Srinagar, Satish Dhawan was a prominent Indian rocket scientist and is hailed as the ‘Father of Experimental Fluid Dynamics Research’ in India.
Succeeded Vikram Sarabhai as ISRO Chairman in 1972.
Oversaw a period of extraordinary growth in India’s space program, including the development of:
Significance: This is India’s sole operational spaceport, serving as the hub for spacecraft and satellite launches since its inception.
How and why was Sriharikota selected as the Launch Site?
1960s Search: India’s search for an ideal launch site began in the 1960s when the country decided to develop indigenous satellites and launch vehicles.
Vikram Sarabhai, the father of India’s space program, tasked EV Chitnis to identify a site on the east coast.
Survey and Acquisition: By October 1968, approximately 40,000 acres of land were acquired in Sriharikota.
Reasons for Choosing Sriharikota:
East Coast Location: Launching rockets eastward takes advantage of Earth’s rotational speed, adding an extra velocity boost of 450 m/s, especially beneficial for geostationary satellites.
Proximity to the Equator: Rockets launching near the equator require less energy to reach geostationary orbits, making the location ideal for such missions.
Uninhabited Area: The site’s sparse population minimizes risks during rocket launches and component re-entry.
Access to the Sea: Proximity to the Bay of Bengal ensures that rocket debris falls into the sea, avoiding hazards to land or human settlements.
Strategic Accessibility: Adequate access to resources, infrastructure, and government support facilitated the development of a robust launch facility.
PYQ:
[2018] With reference to India’s satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements:
PSLVs launch the satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites.
Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth.
GSLV Mk III is a four-staged launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Yala Glacier in Nepal is predicted to disappear by the 2040s due to rapid retreat and mass loss. It is the only glacier in the Himalayas listed on the Global Glacier Casualty List, an initiative launched in 2024 to document endangered or vanished glaciers worldwide.
Note: The UN has designated 2025 as the International Year of Glacier Preservation, with March 21st to be observed annually as World Glacier Day starting from 2025.
About the Yala Glacier
Yala Glacier is located in the Langtang Valley, central Nepal, and is influenced by the Indian summer monsoon.
It is one of the most studied glaciers in Nepal and represents the Hindu Kush Himalayan region in the World Glacier Monitoring Service (WGMS) database.
The glacier has been monitored for over a decade using stakes, snow pits, and satellite images, providing crucial data on the state of Himalayan glaciers.
It is the only glacier in the Himalayas included in the Global Glacier Casualty List, a recognition of its critical status.
It plays a vital role in studying the cryosphere, a critical water resource supporting 240 million people in the Himalayan region.
Retreat of Yala Glacier
Yala Glacier is projected to disappear by the 2040s, reflecting the growing threat to Himalayan glaciers.
It has retreated by 680 meters between 1974 and 2021, with a 36% reduction in area during this period.
Its elevation, which ranged between 5,170m and 5,750m in 2011, has significantly declined.
The glacier has lost so much mass that it no longer meets scientific standards for effective observation.
The Hindu Kush Himalayan cryosphere is warming twice as fast as the global average, leading to rapid glacial retreat.
About the Global Glacier Casualty List
It was launched in 2024 by a consortium of institutions including Rice University, World Glacier Monitoring Service (WGMS), World Meteorological Organization (WMO), and UNESCO.
It documents endangered or vanished glaciers.
Glaciers Listed: Includes 15 glaciers, such as:
Pico Humboldt Glacier (Venezuela): Disappeared in 2024.
Sarenne Glacier (France): Vanished in 2023.
Dagu Glacier (China): Categorized as “critically endangered,” expected to vanish by 2030.
Significance:
Highlights the urgency of glacier preservation, as these ice masses store 70% of global freshwater and influence water security for billions of people worldwide.
Reinforces the need for global cooperation to address the accelerating loss of glaciers due to climate change
PYQ:
[2019] Consider the following Pairs :
Glacier: River
Bandarpunch : Yamuna
Bara Shigri : Chenab
Milam : Mandakini
Siachen : Nubra
Zemu : Manas
Which of the following pairs given above are correctly matched?
Q) Explain the difference between computing methodology of India’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) before the year 2015 and after the year 2015. (UPSC CSE 2021)
Mentor’s Comment: UPSC mains have always focused on major issues like the methodology of India’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (2021) and steady GDP growth and low inflation (2019).
The real GDP growth of 6.4% in 2024-25, while slightly below the Reserve Bank of India’s forecast of 6.6% which should not be seen as disappointing. The growth rate is expected to improve in the second half, with manufacturing showing a significant slowdown, contributing to a decline from 8.2% growth in the previous year.
Today’s editorial highlights the growth rates of India in Nominal and real terms and what are the factors behind the low growth rate of India. This content can be used in mains answer GS paper 3 related to GDP of India.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
The First Advance Estimates (FAE) of National Accounts for 2024-25 indicate a real GDP growth of 6.4% and a nominal GDP growth of 9.7%.
Note: The National Statistical Office (NSO) of the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MOSPI) releases the FAE.
What is the difference between Real and Nominal GDP growth rates?
• Real GDP growth rate is the rate of change in the volume of goods and services produced, while nominal GDP growth rate is the rate of change in the total value of goods and services produced. • The nominal GDP growth rate includes the effects of inflation, while the real GDP growth rate does not.
What factors are contributing to the slowdown in India’s GDP growth?
• Decline in Government Investment: The Government of India’s capital expenditure growth has been negative at (-)12.3%, which has significantly impacted overall GDP growth. Limited capital expenditure, reaching only 46.2% of the budget target after eight months, is a primary reason for the slowdown. • Weak Manufacturing Sector Performance: The manufacturing sector has experienced a sharp decline in growth from 9.9% in 2023-24 to 5.3% in 2024-25, contributing to lower Gross Value Added (GVA) figures. • Global Economic Uncertainty: Anticipated uncertainties stemming from global economic conditions, including changes in leadership in major economies like the United States, may hinder India’s export performance and overall economic stability. • Lower Private Consumption Growth: Although Private Final Consumption Expenditure (PFCE) is projected to grow by 7.3%, this is still a potential concern if consumer confidence does not recover adequately. • Previous High Base Effect: The high GDP growth of 8.2% in 2023-24 creates a challenging comparison, leading to perceptions of slowdown even when current growth rates may be consistent with long-term potential.
How will different sectors of the economy perform in the upcoming fiscal year?
Agriculture and Allied Sectors: Growth in agriculture is expected to improve significantly, with estimates suggesting a rise to 3.8% compared to 1.4% in the previous year.
Manufacturing Sector Recovery: There is an expectation for recovery in manufacturing, although it remains uncertain given past performance trends.
Construction and Services Sectors: The construction sector is projected to grow at around 8.6%, while financial services are expected to see growth of approximately 7.3%, indicating resilience and potential for expansion.
Private Consumption: Continued growth in private consumption is anticipated which is driven by rural demand and government spending initiatives.
What are the implications of these growth forecasts for policy and investment?
Need for Sustained Government Capital Expenditure: The government must prioritize capital expenditure to stimulate economic growth and encourage private investment, targeting at least a 20% increase based on revised estimates.
Focus on Structural Reforms: Policymakers should consider structural reforms that enhance productivity across sectors, particularly in manufacturing and agriculture, to support sustainable growth.
Investment in Infrastructure: Increased investment in infrastructure projects can provide a multiplier effect on the economy, fostering job creation and boosting demand.
Monitoring Global Economic Trends: Given the potential impact of global economic conditions on domestic growth, India should remain vigilant and adaptable to external shocks while focusing on strengthening domestic demand.
Long-Term Growth Strategies: With a potential long-term real GDP growth rate of around 6.5%, strategies should be developed to ensure that this target is met consistently over the next five years through innovation and investment in human capital.
Way forward:
Accelerate Infrastructure Investment: The government should prioritize and fast-track capital expenditure, especially in infrastructure, to stimulate economic activity, enhance private sector participation, and create jobs, aiming for at least 20% growth in capital investment for the upcoming fiscal year.
Enhance Sectoral Productivity through Reforms: Implement structural reforms in key sectors like manufacturing, agriculture, and services to boost productivity, reduce bottlenecks, and ensure sustainable long-term growth, focusing on innovation and skill development.
The Reserve Bank of India (RBI), along with the Central government, has reviewed the rules under the Foreign Exchange Management Act 1999 (FEMA) to make it easier to carry out cross-border transactions in Indian rupees (INR) according to a statement by the RBI.
What are the recent changes made in FEMA regulations by RBI?
Opening Rupee Accounts for Non-Residents: Overseas branches of authorized dealer (AD) banks can now open rupee accounts for non-residents, enabling them to conduct current and capital account transactions with Indian residents.
Settlement of Transactions: Non-residents can use their balances in repatriable rupee accounts, including Special Non-Resident Rupee Accounts (SNRAs) and Special Rupee Vostro Accounts (SRVAs), to settle transactions with other non-residents abroad.
Investment Opportunities: Balances in these accounts can be utilized for foreign investments, including Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in non-debt instruments, thereby promoting rupee-based investments.
Flexibility for Exporters: Indian exporters are now permitted to open foreign currency accounts overseas to receive export proceeds and use these funds for import payments, enhancing operational flexibility.
Support for Local Currency Transactions: The new guidelines support cross-border transactions in local currencies, reducing reliance on dominant foreign currencies like the US Dollar
What is Internationalisation of Rupee?
The internationalization of the rupee refers to the process of increasing the use and acceptance of the Indian rupee (INR) in global trade, investment, and cross-border transactions. This initiative aims to promote the rupee as a viable alternative to dominant currencies like the US dollar in international markets.
What are the key features of the Internationalisation of Rupee?
Cross-Border Transactions: The primary goal is to facilitate more cross-border transactions in rupees, allowing businesses and individuals to conduct trade and investments without relying on foreign currencies.
Current and Capital Account Transactions: Initially focused on promoting the rupee for import and export trade, the process will extend to other current account transactions and eventually capital account transactions, enabling investments in rupee-denominated assets.
Full Convertibility: Achieving full capital account convertibility is essential for internationalization, meaning there would be no restrictions on converting rupees into foreign currency or vice versa for investments and loans.
Strengthening Economic Sovereignty: Reducing reliance on foreign currencies enhances India’s economic sovereignty and minimizes exposure to currency fluctuations, thereby stabilizing trade relations.
Enhancing Global Trade: By allowing direct transactions in rupees, internationalization can simplify cross-border trade processes, eliminate currency conversion needs, and reduce transaction costs.
What are the significance of Internationalisation of Rupee?
Reducing Exchange Rate Risks: By promoting INR usage in international trade, India can mitigate exchange rate risks associated with reliance on major currencies like the USD.
Enhancing Trade Competitiveness: Facilitating rupee transactions can improve India’s trade competitiveness by lowering transaction costs and simplifying payment processes for exporters and importers.
Strengthening Economic Sovereignty: Greater acceptance of the INR in global markets can enhance India’s economic sovereignty and reduce vulnerability to external economic shocks and geopolitical tensions.
Encouraging Foreign Investment: The ability to conduct transactions in INR may attract more foreign investors looking for stable investment opportunities in India
Way forward:
Strengthen Global Agreements: Expand bilateral and multilateral trade agreements to encourage invoicing and settlement in rupees, promoting its global acceptability.
Enhance Domestic Financial Infrastructure: Improve financial systems to support seamless cross-border rupee transactions, including achieving full capital account convertibility and increasing trust in the INR.
Mains PYQ:
Q How would the recent phenomena of protectionism and currency manipulations in world trade affect macroeconomic stability of India? (UPSC IAS/2018)
In just three months since its launch, the Central Suspect Registry (CSR) has successfully declined over 6 lakh fraudulent transactions, saving ₹1,800 crore, according to the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA).
About the Central Suspect Registry (CSR)
The CSR aims to strengthen fraud risk management by maintaining a comprehensive registry of cybercrime suspects.
It contains data on 1.4 million cybercriminals linked to financial fraud and other cybercrimes.
The registry was created by the Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C) under the Ministry of Home Affairs.
The registry is accessible to states, Union Territories, central investigation agencies, intelligence agencies, and financial institutions.
Developed with inputs frombanks and financial institutions, the CSR serves as a central database consolidating cybercrime-related data.
Significance of the CSR:
Integration with NCRP: Uses data from the National Cybercrime Reporting Portal to identify potential cybercriminals.
Fraud Detection and Prevention: Helps financial institutions and law enforcement agencies identify and block fraudulent activities.
Support from Financial Entities: The RBI has directed all banks to integrate the registry into their systems for fraud prevention.
Impact:
Over 6.10 lakh fraudulent transactions blocked, saving ₹1,800 crore as of December 1, 2024.
8.67 lakh mule accounts frozen by banks and financial intermediaries.
7 lakh SIM cards and 1.4 lakh mobile devices blocked.
Financial fraud transactions amounting to ₹3,850 crore saved since 2021 through the Citizen Financial Cyber Frauds Reporting and Management System.
1,03,151 suspicious online content items blocked under the powers conferred by the Information Technology Act, 2000.
PYQ:
[2020] In India, under cyber insurance for individuals, which of the following benefits are generally covered, in addition to payment for the loss of funds and other benefits?
Cost of restoration of the computer system in case of malware disrupting access to one’s computer
Cost of a new computer if some miscreant wilfully damages it, if proved so
Cost of hiring a specialised consultant to minimise the loss in case of cyber extortion
Cost of defence in the Court of Law if any third party files a suit
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 4 only
(b) 1, 3 and 4 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Since earlier this month Los Angeles has been gripped by devastating wildfires fueled by a rare and alarming meteorological phenomenon known as hydroclimate whiplash.
What is Hydroclimate Whiplash?
Hydroclimate whiplash refers to rapid and extreme shifts between periods of intensely wet weather and dangerously dry conditions.
Characteristics:
Alternates between heavy rainfall and severe drought.
Typically results in amplified weather extremes, such as floods followed by wildfires.
Global Trend:
Hydroclimate whiplash has increased by 31% to 66% worldwide since the mid-20th century, largely due to climate change.
Projections indicate a 113% rise in such events during sub-seasonal periods with a 3°C increase in global temperatures.
Causes of Hydroclimate Whiplash
Rising global temperatures intensify hydrological extremes, causing prolonged periods of rainfall and drought.
Warmer air holds more moisture, leading to heavier rainfalls during wet periods and exacerbating droughts during dry phases.
Shifts in El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycles influence precipitation and temperature extremes.
Changes in ocean currents and wind patterns disrupt normal weather cycles, contributing to hydroclimate variability.
Unusual delays in wet or dry seasons can magnify hydroclimate swings, as seen in regions like California.
How did this phenomenon cause wildfire in LA?
The usual wet season, which begins in October, failed during 2024-25, exacerbating dry conditions and increasing fire hazards.
As dry air moves from high-pressure regions over southwestern deserts to low-pressure zones off the California coast, it warms and dries further, creating ideal wildfire conditions.
PYQ:
[2011] La Nina is suspected to have caused recent floods in Australia. How is La Nina different from El Nino?
1. La Nina is characterised by an usually cold ocean temperature in equatorial Indian Ocean whereas El Nino is characterised by unusually warm ocean temperature in the equatorial Pacific Ocean.
2. El Nino has adverse effect on south-west monsoon of India but La Nina has no effect on monsoon climate.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
