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GS Paper: GS3

  • On discarding indexation for LTCG    

    Why in the news?

    Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman’s decision to eliminate indexation for calculating long-term capital gains (LTCG) tax in the Union Budget has received a lukewarm response from stakeholders.

    Changes in the LTCG Regime

    • The new LTCG regime removes the indexation benefit for property, gold, and other unlisted assets.
    • The LTCG tax rate is reduced from 20% to 12.5%.
    • For assets purchased before 2001, the fair market value as of April 1, 2001, is considered the cost of acquisition.

    What is long-term capital gains (LTCG) tax? 

    • LTCG refers to the profit realized from the sale of an asset that has been held for more than one year. This includes various types of assets such as stocks, bonds, real estate, and mutual funds. 
    • If an asset is sold before this holding period, the gains are classified as short-term capital gains (STCG) and are taxed at different rates.

    Why has the Union Finance Minister done away with indexation for computing long-term capital gains (LTCG) tax?

    • Simplification of Tax Computation: The Finance Minister proposed the change to “ease computation of capital gains for the taxpayer and tax administration.” The intention is to simplify the tax process.
    • Uniform Tax Rate: Long-term gains on all financial and non-financial assets would now be taxed at a flat rate of 12.5%, replacing the previous tiered structure.
    • High real estate return: The Income Tax department believes that the real estate returns (12-16% per annum) are higher than indexation for inflation (4-5%). Thus, it predicts “substantial tax savings” for a “vast majority” of taxpayers under the new system.

    What is indexation?

    • Indexation is a mechanism used to adjust the original purchase price of an asset to account for inflation. It helps in calculating the real gains and prevents inflation from inflating the tax liability. The adjusted purchase price is called the indexed cost of acquisition.

    How does Indexation help in Tax Savings?

    • Adjusts the purchase price for inflation: Indexation increases the original purchase price of an asset to account for inflation between the time of purchase and sale. This results in a lower taxable capital gain.
    • Reduces the taxable capital gains: By revising the purchase price upwards using the Cost Inflation Index, indexation reduces the difference between the sale price and purchase price. This lowers the taxable capital gains amount.
    • Leads to lower tax liability: With a reduced taxable capital gain, the tax payable on it also decreases. For example, on a ₹48 lakh gain from selling a house, indexation can bring down the taxable gain to ₹28.6 lakh, saving ₹4,264 in tax (assuming 20% LTCG rate).

    What has been the feedback from corporates and industry regarding the move?

    • Concerns Over Increased Tax Liability: Many stakeholders expressed apprehension that the removal of indexation would lead to higher tax obligations for ordinary investors, particularly in the real estate sector.
      • There are fears that this might encourage the undervaluation of properties to reduce capital gains tax and potentially increase black money transactions in real estate.
    • Mixed Reactions from Realty Players: While some real estate developers and consultants indicated that the removal of indexation might not significantly impact demand and prices, especially for primary home buyers, they noted that high-end properties could see a drop in demand.
      • Some developers viewed the changes positively and said that the lowered tax rate (from 20% to 12.5%) could make real estate a more attractive long-term investment.
    • Government Justifications and Clarifications: The government has argued that the new tax regime simplifies the capital gains tax structure and is beneficial for most taxpayers.

    Way forward: 

    • Transitional Provisions: Govt. should implement transitional provisions for existing investments to ease the shift from the old system to the new one.
    • Strengthen the monitoring system: Need to strengthen monitoring mechanisms to prevent the undervaluation of properties and reduce black money transactions.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q Comment on the important changes introduced in respect of the Long-term Capital Gains Tax (LCGT) and Dividend Distribution Tax (DDT) in the Union Budget for 2018-2019. (UPSC IAS/2018)

  • AI needs cultural policies, not just regulation    

    Why in the news?

    Only by providing fair and broad access to data can we unlock AI’s full potential and ensure its benefits are shared equitably.

    Present Scenario of ‘Data Race vs. Ethics’

    • Data Demand vs. Quality: The race for data has intensified as AI systems, particularly Large Language Models (LLMs), require vast amounts of high-quality data for training. 
      • However, there is a growing concern that this demand may compromise ethical standards, leading to the use of pirated or low-quality datasets, such as the controversial ‘Books3’ collection of pirated texts.

    What are Large Language Models (LLMs)?

    Large Language Models (LLMs) are advanced AI systems that can understand and generate human-like text by learning from vast amounts of data, enabling a wide range of language-related applications.

     

    • Feedback Loops and Bias Amplification: The reliance on existing datasets can create feedback loops that exacerbate biases present in the data.
      • As AI models are trained on flawed datasets, they may perpetuate and amplify these biases, resulting in skewed outputs that reflect an unbalanced and often Anglophone-centric worldview.
    • Ethical Considerations: The urgency to acquire data can overshadow ethical considerations. This raises questions about the fairness and accountability of AI systems, as they may be built on datasets that do not represent the diversity of human knowledge and culture.

    Challenges towards the Sources

    • Lack of Primary Sources: Current LLMs are primarily trained on secondary sources, which often lack the depth and richness of primary cultural artefacts.
      • Important primary sources, such as archival documents and oral traditions, are frequently overlooked, limiting the diversity of data available for AI training.
    • Underutilization of Cultural Heritage: Many repositories of cultural heritage, such as state archives, remain untapped for AI training.
      • These archives contain vast amounts of linguistic and cultural data that could enhance AI’s understanding of humanity’s diverse history and knowledge.
    • Digital Divide: The digitization of cultural heritage is often deprioritized, leading to a lack of access to valuable data that could benefit AI development.
      • This gap in data availability disproportionately affects smaller companies and startups, hindering innovation and competition with larger tech firms.

    Case Studies from Italy and Canada

    • Italy’s Digital Library Initiative: Italy allocated €500 million from its ‘Next Generation EU’ package to develop a ‘Digital Library’ project aimed at making its rich cultural heritage accessible as open data. However, this initiative has faced setbacks and deprioritization, highlighting the challenges of sustaining investment in cultural digitization.
    • Canada’s Official Languages Act: This policy, once criticized for being wasteful, ultimately produced one of the most valuable datasets for training translation software.

    Conclusion: There is a need to implement robust ethical guidelines and standards for data collection and usage in AI training. These standards should ensure that datasets are sourced legally, represent diverse cultures and perspectives, and minimize biases. Encourage collaborations between tech companies, governments, and cultural institutions to develop and adhere to these guidelines.

  • SEBI’s proposed measures to curb F&O speculation    

    Why in the news?

    SEBI has proposed a series of measures to curb speculative trading in the index derivatives segment due to concerns over the exponential increase in trading volumes in futures and options, especially among individual investors.

    What are the different types of derivatives?  

    Note: Derivatives are financial contracts deriving their value from an underlying asset such as stocks, commodities, or currencies.
    • Futures: 
        • Futures are standardized contracts obligating the buyer to purchase an underlying asset (such as stocks, commodities, or currencies) at a predetermined price on a specified future date. They are traded on exchanges, with daily settlements based on market price changes.
        • Futures contracts have margin requirements and are marked to market daily, ensuring liquidity and reducing credit risk.
    • Options: 
        • Options give the buyer the right, but not the obligation, to buy (call option) or sell (put option) an underlying asset at a predetermined price within a specified time frame. Unlike futures, options are not obligatory; the buyer can choose whether to exercise the option.
        • Options can be traded on exchanges or over-the-counter (OTC) and require the payment of a premium by the buyer.
    • Forwards: 
        • Forward contracts are similar to futures but are privately negotiated agreements between two parties to buy or sell an asset at a future date and price. They are customizable and traded over the counter, which allows for flexibility but introduces counterparty risk.
        • Settlement occurs at the maturity date, and forward contracts do not have standardization like futures.
    • Swaps: 
      • Swaps involve the exchange of cash flows or financial instruments between two parties, often based on interest rates or currencies. Common types include interest rate swaps and currency swaps, which allow participants to manage exposure to interest rate fluctuations or gain access to different currencies.
      • Swaps are typically traded over the counter and can be tailored to meet the specific needs of the parties involved.

    What measures have the SEBI proposed?

    • Increase in minimum contract size for index derivatives from Rs 5-10 lakh to Rs 15-20 lakh, which can be further increased to Rs 20-30 lakh after six months.
    • Upfront collection of option premiums by brokers from clients.
    • Intraday monitoring of position limits for index derivative contracts by Market Infrastructure Institutions (MIIs).
    • Providing only one weekly options contract on a single benchmark index of an exchange.
    • Removal of calendar spread benefits on the expiry day for positions involving any of the contracts expiring on the same day.
    • Rationalisation of options strikes, with a uniform interval up to a fixed coverage of 4% near the prevailing index price and an increased interval as the strikes move away from the prevailing price.
    • Increasing margins on the expiry day and the previous day to address the issue of high implicit leverage in options contracts near expiry.

    Why have these measures been proposed?

    • The measures aim to enhance investor protection and promote market stability in the derivative markets, amidst concerns about an exponential rise in the volume of trade in the futures and options (F&O) segment, particularly by individual investors.
    • In the Union Budget 2024-25, the Securities Transaction Tax (STT) on F&O of securities was doubled to 0.02% and 0.1%, respectively, effective October 1, 2024.
    • Data shows that in FY 2023-24, 92.50 lakh unique individuals and proprietorship firms traded in the NSE index derivatives segment and cumulatively incurred a trading loss of Rs 51,689 crore, with only 14.22 lakh investors (about 15%) making a net profit.

    Way forward: 

    • Enhancing Investor Education and Awareness: To mitigate the risks associated with speculative trading in index derivatives, it is essential to implement comprehensive investor education programs.
    • Strengthening Regulatory Oversight and Compliance: SEBI should enhance its regulatory framework by implementing robust monitoring systems that ensure compliance with the proposed measures.

  • [pib] National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority (NPPA)

    Why in the News?

    The NPPA monitors the prices of scheduled as well as non-scheduled medicines under Drugs (Prices Control) Order, 2013 (DPCO, 2013), informed the Union Minister of State for Chemicals and Fertilizers.

    What are Scheduled and Non-Scheduled Formulations?

    [A] Scheduled Formulations:

    • Defined as formulations listed in Schedule-I of the Drugs (Prices Control) Order, 2013 (DPCO, 2013).
    • Ceiling prices of these formulations are revised annually based on the Wholesale Price Index (WPI) for the preceding calendar year.
    • National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority (NPPA) is responsible for revising and notifying these prices.

    [B] Non-Scheduled Formulations:

    • Defined as formulations not included in Schedule-I of the DPCO, 2013.
    • Prices of these formulations can be increased by manufacturers, but the Maximum Retail Price (MRP) cannot be increased by more than 10% during the preceding 12 months.
    • NPPA also monitors the prices of non-scheduled formulations to ensure compliance.

    Action is taken against companies selling formulations at prices higher than permissible, and overcharged amounts are recovered.

    About National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority (NPPA)

    • NPPA was set up as an independent regulator on August 29, 1997, for drug pricing and ensuring affordable access to medicines.
    • It is an attached office of the Department of Pharmaceuticals (DoP), Ministry of Chemicals & Fertilizers.
    • NPPA is not a Statutory or Constitutional Body.
    • It is responsible for implementing and enforcing the provisions of the DPCO.

    Functions of NPPA:

    • Fixation and revision of prices of ‘Scheduled’ drugs under Drug (Price Control) Orders.
      • Scheduled drugs (15% of the pharma market) are allowed an increase based on WPI.
      • Non-scheduled drugs (85% of the pharma market) are allowed an automatic 10% increase annually.
    • Monitoring and enforcement of drug prices.
    • Ensuring availability and accessibility of all medicines and medical devices, including non-scheduled drugs.
    • Undertaking or sponsoring studies on drug pricing.
    • Collecting and maintaining data on production, exports, imports, market share, and profitability of pharmaceutical companies.
    • Advising the Central Government on changes or revisions in drug policy.

    Back2Basics: Drugs (Prices Control) Order (DPCO)

    • The DPCO is an order issued by the Government of India under Sec. 3 of Essential Commodities Act, 1955 to regulate the prices of drugs.
    • The Order provides the list of price controlled drugs, procedures for fixation of prices of drugs, method of implementation of prices fixed by Govt., penalties for contravention of provisions etc.
    • Under the provisions of DPCO 2013, only the prices of drugs that figure in the National List of Essential Medicines (NLEM) are monitored and controlled by the regulator, the National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority.
      • Essential medicines are those that satisfy the priority healthcare needs of the majority of the population.

     

    PYQ:

    [2019] How is the Government of India protecting traditional knowledge of medicine from patenting by pharmaceutical companies?
  • [30th July 2024] The Hindu Op-ed: The problem with India’s blocking of the Chinese

    [30th July 2024] The Hindu Op-ed: The problem with India’s blocking of the Chinese

    PYQ Relevance:

    Mains:

    Q1 China is using its economic relations and positive trade surplus as tools to develop potential military power status in Asia’, In the light of this statement, discuss its impact on India as her neighbour. (UPSC IAS/2021) 

    Q2 With respect to the South China sea, maritime territorial disputes and rising tension affaire the need for safeguarding maritime security to ensure freedom of navigation and ever flight throughout the region. In this context, discuss the bilateral issues between India and China. (UPSC IAS/2014) 

    Prelims: 

    Q ‘Belt and Road Initiative’ is sometimes mentioned in the news in the context of the affairs of (2016)
    (a) African Union 
    (b) Brazil 
    (c) European 
    (d) Union China

    Note4Students: 

    Prelims: Bordering countries with China;

    Mains: Dependency on Chinese technician;

    Mentor comments:  Chinese technicians are vital for the Indian economy as they help bridge significant skill gaps in various industries, including manufacturing and technology. Their expertise is crucial for effectively operating Chinese machinery, which many Indian businesses have acquired but cannot utilize efficiently without skilled personnel. This dependency is highlighted by the urgent need for faster visa approvals for Chinese experts, as delays have led to substantial production losses, estimated at $15 billion over recent years. Integrating their knowledge is essential for enhancing productivity and achieving India’s manufacturing ambitions.

    Let’s learn!

    __

    Why in the News? 

    Indian authorities plan to increase visas for Chinese technicians, acknowledging a significant skill gap between them and Indian workers, which is crucial for enhancing productivity in various industries.

    Dependency on Chinese Technicians

    • Skill Gaps: Indian businesses are facing a substantial skill deficit compared to their Chinese counterparts, which hampers productivity and the effective use of advanced machinery.  
    • Declining Visa Issuance: The number of visas issued to Chinese nationals has drastically decreased from approximately 200,000 in 2019 to just 2,000 in 2024, largely due to geopolitical tensions following border clashes in 2020. 
      • This reduction has created a bottleneck in the manufacturing sector, leading to estimated production losses of around $15 billion over the past four years.
    • Government Response: In light of these challenges, Indian authorities are working to expedite the visa process for Chinese technicians, aiming to reduce processing times from several months to about 30 days. 

    Importance of Foreign Knowledge Integration:

    • Role of Foreign Knowledge in Development: Foreign knowledge is crucial for economic development but is most effective when combined with a well-educated domestic workforce. This integration enhances the ability to utilize foreign expertise effectively.
    • Korea’s Successful Model: In the 1980s, South Korea leveraged foreign technology by purchasing machines to dismantle and reverse engineer them.
      • This was possible due to a strong educational foundation that had been established over three decades, allowing minimal reliance on foreign assistance.
    • China’s Strategic Approach: China began its rapid economic growth in the early 1980s, despite having a weaker educational base than Korea. However, the quality of primary education during the Communist era prepared China for development.
      • Deng Xiaoping’s initiatives, including sending policymakers on international study tours and attracting foreign investors, facilitated the absorption of global knowledge.
    • India’s Educational Challenges: India has focused on building school infrastructure and increasing enrollment, but the quality of education remains low.
      • Only about 15% of Indian students possess the basic skills necessary for participation in the global economy, compared to 85% of Chinese students.
    • Global Competitiveness: China’s performance in international assessments, such as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), has consistently improved, with Chinese students outperforming their peers globally.
      • In contrast, India’s participation in PISA ended after a poor showing in 2009, highlighting a significant gap in educational outcomes.

    Red Queen Race: 

    • Fundamental lesson from the Red Queen: The phrase “You must run twice as fast as you can to stay in the same place” illustrates the necessity for continuous improvement and adaptation in the face of competition, especially in the context of global technological advancements.
    • China’s educational advancements: Chinese universities are now among the world’s best, particularly in fields like computer science and mathematics, reflecting a strong emphasis on integrating foreign knowledge with domestic education.
    • Scientific progress: Chinese scientists are making significant strides in applied sciences relevant to industrial progress, positioning China as a leader in electric vehicles, solar technology, and artificial intelligence.
    • Western response to competition: Instead of addressing deficiencies in their education systems, Western leaders are resorting to protectionist measures against Chinese imports, which may not effectively resolve underlying issues in their own educational frameworks.
    • India’s educational challenges: Indian elites appear to overlook the lessons from China, with economists suggesting a shift towards technology-enhanced service exports while ignoring the need for a robust base of high-quality education to support such initiatives.

    Way forward: 

    • Streamline Visa Approval Processes: India should expedite the visa application process for Chinese technicians by implementing a fast-track system that reduces approval times to less than a month.  
    • Enhance Domestic Education and Training: To complement foreign expertise, India must invest in improving its educational system, focusing on vocational training and technical skills.  

  • Teaching computers to forget   

    Why in the news?

    The emergence of artificial intelligence has revolutionized various facets of our lives and has even prompted us to reevaluate our concepts of the mind, brain, and consciousness.

    Antithesis of Machine Learning (ML):

    • Machine Unlearning (MUL) is considered the antithesis of Machine Learning (ML). It was first proposed by Cao and Yang in their work “Towards Making Systems Forget with Machine Unlearning.”
    • Machine Unlearning focuses on the ability to make AI models forget specific data they have learned. This concept addresses the challenges of removing or correcting sensitive, false, incorrect, or outdated information from trained AI models.
      • While ML is about learning from data to make predictions or decisions, MUL aims to reverse this process, ensuring that certain data can be effectively and completely erased from the models.
    • This concept is crucial for maintaining data privacy, reducing AI bias, and complying with regulations that require the deletion of personal or sensitive information.

    Implementation approaches

    • Private Approach: Data fiduciaries voluntarily implement MUL algorithms, allowing flexibility but potentially limiting access for smaller companies due to cost and expertise barriers.
    • Public Approach: Governments can legislate requirements for MUL implementation, potentially creating a standard framework that data fiduciaries must follow. This can include guidelines under existing data protection laws, as seen in the EU’s AI Act, which addresses data poisoning and mandates security controls.
    • International Approach: This emphasizes the need for a global framework for MUL, recognizing that AI innovations have cross-border implications. International standard-setting organizations could play a crucial role in developing these standards

    Techniques for Machine Unlearning

    • Exact Unlearning: This method completely removes the influence of specific data points from the model.
    • Approximate Unlearning: Instead of fully erasing the data’s influence, this technique minimizes its impact on the model’s predictions to an acceptable level.
    • Data-Centric Approaches: Techniques like data reorganization and pruning are employed to manage the dataset, making it easier to identify and remove unwanted data points.
    • Model-Centric Approaches: These methods involve manipulating the model parameters directly. For example, algorithms can adjust the weights associated with the data points that need to be forgotten, thereby reducing their influence on the model’s outputs.
    • Prompting-Based Methods: In large language models (LLMs), developers can use carefully crafted prompts to induce behaviours that mimic unlearning.
    • Algorithmic Innovations: New algorithms, such as MU-Mis, focus on minimizing the contribution of specific data points to the model’s decision-making process.

    Way forward: 

    • Development of Standardized Frameworks: The need to establish a comprehensive regulatory framework for MUL can facilitate its adoption across various sectors. Governments and international organizations should collaborate to create guidelines that mandate the use of MUL techniques for data privacy compliance, similar to the EU’s AI Act. 
    • Investment in Research and Education: The need to increase funding and resources should be directed toward research in machine unlearning techniques and their applications.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q  The emergence of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (Digital Revolution) has initiated e-Governance as an integral part of government”. Discuss. (2020)

  • Target drug producers, not users        

    Why in the news?

    Telangana faces a drug crisis, with Hyderabad as a transit hub. Marijuana is trafficked via Konark Express to Maharashtra and Karnataka, per police reports.

    The Gravity of the Drug Problem in Telangana

    • Hyderabad has emerged as a transit hub for drugs, with marijuana being ferried through the city to be supplied to neighbouring states like Maharashtra and Karnataka.
    • The number of people charge-sheeted for drug possession and peddling increased from 735 in 2020 to 3,052 in 2022. In the first six months of 2023, nearly 1,900 cases were lodged against peddlers and users.
    • An international drug ring was busted in February 2023, seizing ₹8 crore worth of synthetic psychedelics like OG Kush and Ecstasy pills.
    • Drug abuse has been found among students in top medical and management colleges in Hyderabad.

    Initiatives taken by the State Government

    • Drug Detection Kits: Officials use the latest technology, including 12-panel drug tests, to instantly identify drug abuse among party attendees and students.
    • Special Operations: Operations such as checking attendees at Electronic Dance Music parties and conducting tests on students in colleges have been carried out.
    • Use of Sniffer Dogs: Sniffer dogs are deployed in pubs and transit hubs to detect contraband.
    • Legal and Technological Actions: The Telangana Anti-Narcotics Bureau sent cease and desist notices to firms manufacturing ganja-laced chocolates shipped via e-commerce platforms.
    • Political Will: Chief Minister A. Revanth Reddy has shown political will by advocating for awareness among politicians and celebrities, although this has led to legal disputes.

    Legal Status of Marijuana

    • General Prohibition: Marijuana, including its various forms such as ganja (flower), charas (resin), and hashish, is illegal under the NDPS Act. It talks about the possession, sale, and production of these substances are criminal offences.
    • Bhang Exception: Bhang, made from the leaves and seeds of the cannabis plant, is legally consumed in many parts of India, especially during religious festivals. It is not classified as an illegal substance under the NDPS Act.
    • State Variations: Different states have their own regulations regarding cannabis. For example, Uttarakhand has legalized the commercial cultivation of hemp, while Odisha has a more lenient approach to recreational use. This leads to a patchwork of laws across the country.
    • Penalties: The NDPS Act prescribes severe penalties for drug offences.
      • Possession of small quantities can lead to imprisonment of six months to one year and fines of up to ₹10,000. For larger quantities, penalties can escalate to 10-20 years of imprisonment and fines of ₹1-2 lakh.

    Requires Smart thinking and Policing (Way forward)

    • Focus on Trade, Not Users: The emphasis should be on dismantling the drug network rather than just catching users. This approach was advocated by Home Minister Amit Shah.
    • Avoiding Witch Hunts: The fight against drugs should not lead to the targeting of specific localities or public shaming of institutions.
    • Need Economic Considerations: Measures such as shutting down nightlife venues before midnight could harm the economy and the business environment.
    • Implement Integrated Approach: A comprehensive strategy is needed that involves smarter policing, better use of technology, and effective legal actions against producers and suppliers rather than users.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q  India’s proximity to two of the world’s biggest illicit opium-growing states has enhanced her internal security concerns. Explain the linkages between drug trafficking and other illicit activities such as gunrunning, money laundering and human trafficking. What countermeasures should be taken to prevent the same? (2018)

  • In 2024, newer districts are affected by militancy in Jammu   

    Why in the News?

    An ambush resulted in the deaths of five Indian Army personnel  which highlights a worrying trend of increasing violence in Jammu and Kashmir, particularly in the Jammu region.

    • This incident marks the fourth terror attack in the state within a span of 48 hours, indicating a surge in militant activities.

    Observations on Militancy Leading to Civilian Deaths

    • The new wave of terrorism: The region has seen a resurgence of violence after a period of relative peace, with notable incidents such as the June 9 attack on a bus carrying Hindu pilgrims, resulting in nine deaths. This shift in militancy is particularly concerning as it reflects a new wave of terrorism, especially in areas like Rajouri and Poonch, which had previously been stable.
    • Changing dynamics of Terrorism: There is a notable transition from foreign terrorists leading attacks to local militants becoming more prominent.

    Developments in Militancy (2014-2024)

    • Surge in Violence Post-2016: The killing of Hizbul Mujahideen militant Burhan Wani in July 2016 sparked widespread unrest and violence, leading to a resurgence in militant activities. This period saw increased recruitment of local youth into militant ranks, particularly within groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Mohammed.
    • Major Attacks: Notable incidents include the 2016 Uri attack, where militants killed 19 soldiers, and the 2019 Pulwama attack, which resulted in the deaths of 40 CRPF personnel. These attacks highlighted the persistent threat posed by organized militant groups.
    • Revocation of Article 370: The abrogation of Jammu and Kashmir’s special status in August 2019 led to a significant shift in the political landscape. While the Indian government claimed a reduction in violence, there were still notable attacks, such as the
    • Emergence of Hybrid Militancy: A new trend termed “hybrid militancy” has emerged, where individuals engage in militant activities sporadically while maintaining their civilian lives.
    • Decline in Active Militants: By the end of 2022, the number of active militants had fallen to just over 100, down from around 250 in 2019. However, the presence of foreign militants has reportedly increased, indicating a shift in the composition of militant forces.
    • Increased Counter-Insurgency Operations: The Indian security forces have intensified operations against militants, resulting in the deaths of approximately 750 militants over the last four years, with a significant proportion being local youths.
    • Changing Tactics and Technology: Militants have increasingly utilized modern technology, including drones and social media, to coordinate attacks and recruit members, presenting new challenges for security forces.

    Way forward: 

    • Addressing Recruitment Cycles: Government need to make initiatives aimed at preventing youth recruitment into militant groups. This can include educational programs, vocational training, and employment opportunities that provide alternatives to joining militant organizations.
    • Enhanced Intelligence and Local Engagement: The need to Strengthen local intelligence networks is crucial to preemptively identify and disrupt militant activities.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q  Analyse the complexity and intensity of terrorism, its causes, linkages and obnoxious nexus. Also suggest measures required to be taken to eradicate the menace of terrorism. (2021)

  • Landslides in Wayanad

    Why in the News?

    Many people have died, and hundreds are feared trapped after three landslides hit Kerala’s Wayanad district.

    About Wayanad

    • Wayanad is the only plateau in Kerala, forming a continuation of the Mysore Plateau, part of the Deccan Plateau.
    • The Kabini River, a tributary of the Kaveri River, originates in Wayanad.
    • The Chaliyar River, the fourth longest river in Kerala, also originates on the Wayanad plateau.
    • Wayanad is home to the Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary.

    Susceptibility to Landslides:

    • The region predominantly has laterite soil, which is highly prone to erosion.
    • The steep and undulating terrain of Wayanad makes it naturally susceptible to landslides.
    • Wayanad receives intense and prolonged monsoon rains that cause water infiltration, leading to soil saturation and increased pore water pressure, which destabilizes slopes.
    • Large-scale deforestation for agriculture and settlement reduces the binding capacity of the soil and its ability to absorb water, exacerbating the risk of landslides.

    What are Landslides?

    • A landslide is the downward and outward movement of materials including rock, earth, or debris down a slope due to gravitational force. Landslides are disasters of hydrogeological origin, resulting from the failure of materials falling down a slope due to gravity.
    • India is among the top five landslide-prone countries globally, with at least one death per 100 sq km reported annually due to landslides.

    Regional Distribution

    • North-western Himalayas: 66.5% of landslides.
    • North-eastern Himalayas: 18.8% of landslides.
    • Western Ghats: 14.7% of landslides.

    Key Policy Initiative: National Landslide Susceptibility Map

    • The National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) under ISRO released the Landslide Atlas of India in 2023.
    • This detailed guide identifies landslide hotspots across the country with a 100 sq. m resolution overview of landslide susceptibility.
    • The map highlights traditional high-risk areas and uncovers new regions of concern, broadening the scope of landslide monitoring.
    • Scientists conducted a risk assessment based on 80,000 landslides recorded between 1998 and 2022 across 147 districts in 17 states and two Union Territories, creating a “Landslide Atlas” of the country.

    Key Highlights of the Landslide Atlas:

    Top States by Landslide Events:

    • Mizoram: 12,385 events in the past 25 years.
    • Uttarakhand: 11,219 events.
    • Other states: Kerala, Jammu and Kashmir, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, and Tripura.

    Districts with Maximum Landslide Exposure:

    • Arunachal Pradesh: 16 districts.
    • Kerala: 14 districts.
    • Uttarakhand and Jammu and Kashmir: 13 districts each.
    • Himachal Pradesh, Assam, and Maharashtra: 11 districts each.
    • Mizoram: 8 districts.
    • Nagaland: 7 districts.

    Highest Landslide Density and Risk Exposure:

    • Rudraprayag and Tehri Garhwal districts in Uttarakhand.

    PYQ:

    [2021] Describe the various causes and the effects of landslides. Mention the important components of the National Landslide Risk Management Strategy.

  • What is Oropouche Fever?

    Why in the News?

    Brazil has reported the first deaths from Oropouche fever.

    About Oropouche Fever

    • Oropouche fever is a viral disease caused by the Oropouche virus.
    • The virus is transmitted primarily through the bites of infected midges, specifically the Culicoides paraensis, and mosquitos.
    • The World Health Organization (WHO) reported the first-ever outbreak in Cuba on June 11, 2024.

    Symptoms:

    • Symptoms are similar to those of dengue fever and typically begin between four to eight days after the bite.
    • Common symptoms include:
      • Sudden onset of fever
      • Headaches
      • Body aches
      • Chills
      • Joint stiffness
      • Nausea and vomiting (occasionally)
    • Most patients recover within seven days, and severe cases are rare.
    • There is no evidence of human-to-human transmission.

    Treatment and Prevention

    • There is no specific vaccine or antiviral treatment for Oropouche fever.
    • Treatment is usually symptomatic, focusing on relieving fever and pain.
    • Preventative measures include avoiding bites from midges and mosquitos by using repellents, wearing protective clothing, and using insect nets.

    PYQ:

    [2010] Widespread resistance of malarial parasites to drugs like chloroquine has prompted attempts to develop a malarial vaccine to combat malaria. Why is it difficult to develop an effective malaria vaccine?

    (a) Malaria is caused by several species of Plasmodium
    (b) Man does not develop immunity to malaria during natural infection
    (c) Vaccines can be developed only against bacteria
    (d) Man is only an intermediate host and not the definitive host