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GS Paper: GS3

  • Pressmud for Green Energy and CBG Production

    pressmud

    Central Idea

    • Leading Sugar Producer: Since 2021-22, India has surpassed Brazil to become the world’s leading sugar producer.
    • Second-Largest Exporter: India also holds the position of the second-largest sugar exporter globally.
    • Ethanol Biofuel Sector Growth: The expansion of this sector has bolstered the sugar industry and improved the financial health of sugar mills.

    Pressmud: A Valuable Byproduct

    • Pressmud, also known as filter cake or press cake, is an agricultural waste product from sugar production.
    • It is obtained during the repeated filtration of cane juice before sugar extraction.
    • Approximately 3-4 percent of press mud is produced per tonne of crushed cane.
    • Traditionally, pressmud is recycled as manure through composting and supplied to local farmers.
    • Recognized as a resource for green energy, pressmud can be used to produce biogas through anaerobic digestion, leading to compressed biogas (CBG) creation.
    • It is beneficial for crops and horticulture due to its richness in micronutrients.

    Challenges with Pressmud

    • Storage Issues: Pressmud undergoes gradual decomposition, complicating long-term storage and increasing production costs.
    • Price Increase: The recognition of its potential has led to a substantial rise in pressmud prices.

    Pressmud as CBG Feedstock: Advantages and Challenges

    • Supply Chain Simplification: Using pressmud eliminates complexities associated with agricultural residue supply chains.
    • Quality and Pre-treatment: Unlike municipal solid waste, pressmud’s quality is consistent, and it lacks lignin, reducing pre-treatment costs.
    • Conversion Efficiency: Pressmud is more efficient and economical as a feedstock for CBG production compared to cattle dung and agricultural residue.
    • Economic and Competitive Factors: The increasing price of pressmud and competition for its use in fertilizers and bio-composting pose challenges.

    Regional Production and Sugar Mills in India

    • Primary Sugarcane States: Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra contribute significantly to India’s sugarcane cultivation.
    • Operational Sugar Mills: As of 2022-23, India had 531 operational sugar mills.
    • Sugar and Pressmud Production: The total sugar production was 32.74 million tonnes, with approximately 11.4 million tonnes of pressmud.

    Potential and Future Steps

    • CBG Potential: The available pressmud can generate significant quantities of CBG, valued at substantial economic returns.
    • Required Interventions: To maximize this potential, states need to implement bioenergy policies, control pressmud prices, and establish long-term agreements with sugar mills.
    • Research and Training: Developing storage technologies for pressmud and conducting training for CBG plant operators are essential.

     Back2Basics: Sugarcane By-products

    Description Uses
    Bagasse Fibrous residue left after sugarcane crushing. – Biofuel for energy production

    – Raw material for paper, board, building materials
    Molasses Thick, dark syrup produced during sugar refining. – Alcohol production (e.g., rum)

    – Sweetener in animal feed

    – Base for fermentation products

    – Ingredient in food products
    Vinasse (Distillery Waste) Liquid waste from ethanol production using molasses. – Liquid fertilizer

    – Biogas production
    Carbon Dioxide Gas produced during fermentation in sugar manufacturing. – Carbonation in beverages

    – Enhancing plant growth in greenhouses
    Fly Ash Ash produced from burning bagasse. – Material in cement and concrete

    – Soil amendment in agriculture
    Heat Energy Thermal energy generated from manufacturing processes. – Cogeneration for electricity and heating

     

  • The GDP surprise: India on the up and up

    US Economic Forecast Q3 2023 | Deloitte Insights

    Central idea

    The Indian growth story remains a beacon of hope. The economy is unlikely to slow down in line with other major economies of the world as the government continues to undertake reforms.

    Key Highlights:

    • Economic Growth: The Indian economy expands by 7.6% in Q2, challenging doubts on post-pandemic macroeconomic resilience.
    • Manufacturing Surge: The manufacturing sector grows robustly at 13.9%, indicating positive outcomes from policy initiatives and credit stabilization.
    • Corporate Health: Corporate books show impressive bottom-line growth, reflecting broad-based economic recovery.
    • Capex Intentions: Historic capex intentions with new investment announcements reaching Rs 37 lakh crore in 2022-23, signifying increased private sector participation.
    • Agricultural Transformation: Agriculture grows by 1.2%, with a shift towards allied activities reducing dependence on traditional farm income.
    • Banking Support: Banks increasingly finance the entire agri value chain, with agri loans growing by 15.4% in 2022-23.
    • Services Sector Moderation: Services sector growth moderates to 5.8%, influenced by low growth in trade, hotels, transport, and communication.
    • Consumption Patterns: Private consumption decelerates to 3.1%, possibly impacted by higher inflation, expected to pick up in the third quarter.
    • Government Investments: Government consumption and investments register healthy growth, with gross fixed capital formation increasing by 11%.

    Key Challenges:

    • Global Growth Risk: Risk of softer global growth, especially in the US and Euro region, may impact India’s exports and economic momentum.
    • Consumer Sentiment Woes: Consumer sentiments in major economies worsen amid growing uncertainty, potentially affecting global trade.

    Key Terms and Phrases:

    • Macro-economic Resilience: India’s ability to withstand and recover from economic shocks.
    • PLI Scheme: Production-Linked Incentive scheme aimed at boosting manufacturing in specific sectors.
    • Corporate Balance Sheets: Financial health and performance of businesses.
    • Capex Intentions: Plans and commitments for capital expenditures.
    • Allied Activities in Agriculture: Diversification into areas like dairy and fisheries within the agriculture sector.
    • Gross Fixed Capital Formation: Investment in fixed assets contributing to economic growth.
    • Consumer Sentiments: Public attitudes and feelings regarding economic conditions and spending.
    • Global Trade Headwinds: Challenges and obstacles affecting international trade.

    Key Quotes:

    • “The Indian growth story remains a beacon of hope.”
    • “The economy is unlikely to slow down in line with other major economies of the world.”

    Key Statements:

    • Manufacturing sector growth indicates an uptick triggered by government expenditure, policy initiatives, and credit stabilization.
    • Agriculture’s increased focus on allied activities reduces dependence on traditional farm income.
    • Historic capex intentions and private sector participation signal a strong economic recovery.

    Key Examples and References:

    • New investment announcements hitting a high of Rs 37 lakh crore in 2022-23, showcasing increased private sector participation.
    • Agriculture loans by banks increase by 15.4% in 2022-23, indicating growing support for the agri value chain.

    Key Facts and Data:

    • Indian economy grows by 7.6% in Q2, marking two consecutive quarters of 7% plus growth.
    • Manufacturing sector grows at a robust 13.9%, reaching a nine-quarter high.
    • New investment announcements hit Rs 37 lakh crore in 2022-23, compared to Rs 20 lakh crore in 2021-22.
    • Agriculture grows by 1.2% in Q2, with allied activities contributing significantly.

    Critical Analysis:

    • The robust economic growth raises questions about the accuracy of forecasts doubting India’s resilience.
    • The manufacturing sector’s strong performance indicates positive outcomes from government initiatives and policies.
    • Private sector participation in capex reflects confidence in the economic recovery.
    • Increased focus on allied activities in agriculture showcases a shift in the sector’s dynamics.
    • The potential risk of softer global growth highlights external factors influencing India’s economic trajectory.

    Way Forward:

    • Continued government reforms and support for economic growth.
    • Monitoring and addressing potential risks from softer global growth.
    • Sustaining the positive momentum in manufacturing and capex through policy measures.
    • Emphasizing the role of allied activities in agriculture for a diversified income base.
    • Nurturing consumer sentiments and encouraging private consumption for sustained economic recovery.

  • India set to launch its first X-Ray Polarimeter Satellite (XPoSat)

    Central Idea

    • The Indian Space Research Organisation, following a landmark 2023, will ring in the new year with the launch of the PSLV-C58 X-ray Polarimeter Satellite (XPoSat) mission on January 1, 2024.

    About XPoSat Mission

    • Orbital Details: XPoSat will operate in a Low Earth Orbit at an altitude of about 650 km, with a low inclination of around 6 degrees.
    • Dual Scientific Payloads: The satellite is equipped with two payloads, enabling comprehensive studies of X-ray sources, including their temporal, spectral, and polarization characteristics.
    • Mission Goals: XPoSat’s primary objectives include measuring X-ray polarization in the 8-30 keV energy band and conducting long-term studies in the 0.8-15 keV band.
    • Mission Lifespan: The satellite is expected to be operational for approximately 5 years.
    • Observation Strategy: Observations by XPoSat will primarily occur during the Earth’s eclipse period to maximize efficiency.

    Payloads aboard XPoSat

    • POLIX – Primary Payload: The Polarimeter Instrument in X-rays (POLIX), developed by Bengaluru’s Raman Research Institute (RRI) with ISRO’s collaboration, is tailored to assess the degree and angle of polarization in medium X-ray energy ranges.
    • XSPECT – Secondary Payload: The X-ray Spectroscopy and Timing (XSPECT) payload, created by ISRO’s U.R. Rao Satellite Centre (URSC), will gather spectroscopic data in the 0.8-15 keV range.

    Significance of XPoSat

    • Polarization refers to the orientation of light waves. X-rays, a form of electromagnetic radiation, can also be polarized.
    • Studying it from cosmic sources provides valuable information about the physical conditions and processes occurring in extreme environments, such as around black holes, neutron stars, and supernova remnants.

  • [pib] Exercise MILAN

    Exercise MILAN

    Central Idea

    • Scheduled for February 2024, Exercise MILAN is set to be India’s largest multilateral naval exercise, with over 50 countries expected to participate.

    Exercise MILAN

    • Origin: Biennial exercise initiated by the Indian Navy in 1995 at the Andaman and Nicobar Command.
    • Initial Participation: Began with four countries – Indonesia, Singapore, Sri Lanka, and Thailand in 1995.
    • Growth over Years: The exercise has significantly grown in the number of participants and the complexity of exercises.
    • Expansion with Policies: Expanded under India’s ‘Act East policy’ and the SAGAR initiative.
    • Broader Inclusion: Now includes island nations in the Western Indian Ocean Region (IOR) and IOR littoral states.

    Significance of Exercise MILAN

    • Showcasing Naval Strength: This exercise reflects the Indian Navy’s growing engagement and capability to assist as a first responder and Preferred Security Partner in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).
    • Enhanced Operational Reach: The Indian Navy’s increasing presence and operational reach through Mission Based Deployments and other engagements underscore India’s commitment to strong defense ties.
    • Importance of Naval Exercises: Conducting 17 multilateral and 20 bilateral exercises annually, these events are crucial for operational capability enhancement, interoperability, and strengthening diplomatic and maritime security ties.

  • India plans to develop its own ‘Sovereign AI’

    Sovereign AI

    Central Idea

    • In a strategic move towards bolstering its technological prowess, India is set to extend its Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) model to artificial intelligence (AI), aiming for sovereign AI capabilities.

    Sovereign AI Initiative

    • Strategic Direction: Minister of State for Electronics and IT has articulated India’s commitment to developing its own sovereign AI, diverging from solely relying on ecosystems driven by global tech giants.
    • Focus Areas: The government’s AI strategy is based on practical applications in sectors like healthcare, agriculture, and governance, aiming for broader economic impact.

    Tech Governance Solutions so far

    • Global Positioning: India is showcasing itself as a leader in using technology for large-scale governance solutions.
    • Prominent Examples: The country highlights its Aadhaar bio-metric identity program and the Unified Payments Interface (UPI) as key achievements.
    • Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI): This concept involves government-backed technology frameworks that are later expanded upon by private entities for various applications.

    India’s Strategy for AI Control

    • Policy Framework: The National Data Governance Framework Policy, proposed by MeitY, aims to create an India Datasets platform, aggregating non-personal and anonymized government data.
    • Empowering Innovation: This initiative is designed to provide startups and researchers with access to valuable data for AI development and research.
    • Objective: The policy’s goal is to modernize data collection to enhance governance and stimulate an AI-centric startup ecosystem.

    Unified National Data Sharing Platform

    • Report Findings: A recent IT Ministry report highlighted the India datasets program as a key to enabling diverse data sharing and exchange use cases.
    • Data Monetization: The potential monetization of non-personal data is seen as a catalyst for innovation and growth in the AI sector.

    Regulating AI in India

    • Legislative Outlook: India’s future AI governance laws are expected to reflect the significant role AI plays in the digital economy.
    • Regulatory Approach: The government plans a hybrid regulatory model, incorporating elements of both European and American frameworks.
    • Tech Giants’ Data Sharing: A proposed directive, part of the draft Digital India Bill, may require major tech companies to contribute non-personal data to a government database.
    • Legislative Timeline: The Digital India Bill is anticipated to be a focus for the government post the 2024 general elections.
    • Committee Recommendations: A MeitY-appointed committee suggested utilizing aggregated non-personal data for economic gains, identifying specific high-value datasets for this purpose.

    Conclusion

    • In its pursuit of sovereign AI and robust digital public infrastructure, India is positioning itself as a key player in the global AI domain.
    • The focus on practical AI applications, combined with a balanced regulatory approach, aims to foster innovation, ensure effective data governance, and drive economic growth.

  • Centre and Manipur signs Peace Agreement with UNLF

    UNLF

    Central Idea

    • The Union and Manipur governments have signed a peace agreement with the United National Liberation Front (UNLF), a banned Meitei extremist organisation.
    • UNLF is the oldest armed group based in the Manipur valley, marking this agreement as a notable event in the region’s history.

    Understanding the UNLF

    • Formation: Established on November 24, 1964, under Arembam Samarendra Singh‘s leadership, the UNLF is the oldest valley-based insurgent group in Manipur.
    • Diverse Leadership: Initially led by a mix of ethnicities, including Naga and Kuki leaders.
    • Armed Wing and Activities: The Manipur People’s Army, formed in 1990, and has been responsible for multiple attacks against Indian security forces.
    • Current Status: The UNLF, now split into two factions, is estimated to have 400-500 cadres, operating primarily in the valley areas of Manipur and some Kuki-Zomi hill districts.
    • Base of Operations: Largely operating from Myanmar, the group has faced setbacks due to conflicts with the Myanmar military and other Ethnic Armed Organisations (EAOs).

    Precedent for the Peace Agreement

    • Historical Context: This is a significant development as Meitei Extremist Organisations (VBIGs) have traditionally not engaged in peace talks with the Centre.
    • Previous Instances: Smaller groups like UPPK, KCP, and Maoist Communist Group have disbanded or diminished in influence, but the terms of their agreements are unclear.
    • UNLF’s Internal Dynamics: The group underwent splits in the mid-1990s and 2021, leading to the formation of factions under different leaders. The faction led by Khundongbam Pambei has been open to negotiations since 2020.

    Status of Other Insurgent Groups

    • Broader Insurgency Landscape: The UNLF is one of several Meitei insurgent groups and is among the seven banned by the Union government.
    • Opposition to Talks: The UNLF faction under NC Koireng remains opposed to peace talks.
    • Agreements with Other Groups: A Suspension of Operations (SoO) agreement was reached in 2008 with Kuki-Zomi insurgent groups, but the Manipur government withdrew from agreements with some groups in 2022.

    Conclusion

    • The peace agreement with the UNLF marks a critical step in addressing the long-standing insurgency in Manipur.
    • It reflects a shift in the approach of Meitei insurgent groups towards dialogue and potential reconciliation.
    • The success of this agreement could pave the way for further peace initiatives in the region, contributing to stability and development in Manipur.

  • Halal Certification Ban in Uttar Pradesh: A Comprehensive Overview

    Central Idea

    • On November 18, the Uttar Pradesh government imposed a state-wide ban on the “production, storing, distribution, and sale of halal certified edible items.”

    Understanding Halal and Halal Food

    • Definition of Halal: ‘Halal’ is an Arabic term meaning ‘permissible’ in English.
    • FAO Guidelines on Halal Food: The Food and Agriculture Organization defines halal food as compliant with Islamic Law, including specific slaughter methods.
    • Vegetarian Food and Halal: Generally, vegetarian food is deemed halal unless it contains prohibited substances like alcohol.
    • Labeling of Halal Products: Products claimed as halal must visibly display this on their labels.

    Halal-Certified Products

    • Purpose of Certification: Halal certification ensures food preparation adheres to Islamic law and is free from contamination.
    • Certification Bodies in India: Various private companies in India, like Halal India Pvt Ltd and Jamiat Ulama-i-Hind Halal Trust, offer halal certification. Some are government-recognized, while others are not.

    Controversy Surrounding Halal-Certified Products

    • Legality: The debate centers on the legality of certificate-issuing authorities and allegations of targeting specific religious communities.
    • Parallel Authority issue: The Indian government does not require halal certification; FSSAI certification is the standard for edible products.
    • International Trade and Halal Certification: As per the USDA 2022 report, halal certification is not essential for export or import trade permissions.
    • Religious violations: A case was filed against entities in Lucknow for purportedly exploiting religious sentiments to enhance sales through halal certification.

    Legal Aspects of Halal Certification

    • Complaints against Certification: Complaints have emerged against companies for allegedly issuing forged halal certificates for financial benefits.
    • Accusations of Illegal Certification: These companies are accused of lacking official recognition to issue halal certificates.

    Halal Certification System in India

    • Certifying Agencies: Various agencies provide halal certification to Indian companies, products, or food establishments.
    • Government Accreditation: The National Accreditation Board for Certification Bodies under the Quality Council of India accredits these Halal Certification Bodies.
    • Advantages of Certification: Certification from recognized bodies benefits companies in both domestic and international markets.
    • DGFT Guidelines: The Directorate General of Foreign Trade mandates that only facilities with valid certification from accredited bodies can export ‘halal certified’ meat and meat products.
    • Government’s i-CAS Scheme: The ‘India Conformity Assessment Scheme’ was developed to regulate the halal certification process.

    Implications of the Ban

    • Quality confusions: The ban aims to address confusion over food quality standards and align with the Food Safety and Standards Act.
    • Curbing forged certification: Companies issuing forged certificates are accused of fostering social unrest and betraying public trust.
    • Economic Impact: There are apprehensions about a potential conspiracy to undermine the sales of non-halal certified products.
    • Financial Misuse: There are allegations that profits from these activities could be funneled towards supporting terrorist organizations and anti-national activities.

    Conclusion

    • This ban reflects the complex interplay between food safety regulations, religious practices, and commercial dynamics.
    • It highlights the need for a balanced approach in addressing such multifaceted issues.

  • How UAPA has become more draconian over the years?

    Central Idea

    • Students in Jammu & Kashmir were booked under the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) after allegations of abuse and threats during the World Cup final, along with raising pro-Pakistan slogans.
    • Jammu & Kashmir police invoked a ‘softer provision’ of UAPA, citing the act of ‘terrorizing’ others with pro-India or anti-Pakistan sentiments.

    What is UAPA?

    • Purpose: UAPA empowers the government to investigate and prosecute acts of terrorism, and to designate entities as “unlawful” or “terrorist” organizations or individuals.
    • Enactment: Introduced in 1967, based on recommendations from the National Integration Council to counter national divisiveness. Initially focused on secessionist activities without explicit mention of terrorism.
    • Evolution of UAPA:
    1. Introduction of Terrorism (2004): Post-repeal of POTA, UAPA was amended to include terrorism. It defined terrorism, associated punishments, and introduced provisions for seizing ‘proceeds of terrorism’.
    2. Post-26/11 Amendments (2008): Expanded the definition of terrorism, introduced stringent bail conditions, and extended police and judicial custody durations. It also made bail more difficult to obtain and shifted the burden of proof to the accused in certain cases.
    3. Economic Security (2012): Included economic security under terrorism, categorizing activities like counterfeiting currency as terrorist acts. It also increased the duration for which an organization could be declared unlawful.
    4. Individual Designation (2019): Allowed the government to designate individuals as terrorists and expanded the NIA’s powers.

    The ‘Softer’ Provision: Section 13

    • Section 13 of UAPA: Deals with punishment for ‘unlawful activities’ rather than ‘terrorist activities’. It includes imprisonment up to seven years for participating in, advocating, abetting, or inciting unlawful activities.
    • Implications: Although termed ‘softer’, this section still carries significant penalties and makes bail challenging to obtain.

    Criticism and Concerns

    • Vague Definitions: The act’s broad and vague definitions, especially post-2008 amendments, allow for a wide interpretation of what constitutes terrorism or unlawful activities.
    • Human Rights Concerns: The act has been criticized for potentially violating human rights, including the presumption of innocence and the right to a fair trial.
    • Use against Dissenters: There have been instances where UAPA has been used against activists, journalists, and protestors, raising concerns about its use to suppress dissent.

    Conclusion: Balancing Security and Rights

    • Need for Scrutiny: The use of UAPA, especially its ‘softer’ provisions, requires careful scrutiny to ensure it doesn’t infringe on fundamental rights while addressing security concerns.
    • Debate on Amendments: Ongoing debates about UAPA focus on finding a balance between national security needs and the protection of individual rights and freedoms.

  • Cabinet clears terms of reference for 16th Finance Commission

    Central Idea

    • The Union Cabinet approved the terms of reference (ToR) for the Sixteenth Finance Commission.
    • The Commission will devise a formula for revenue sharing between the Centre and the States for the period starting April 1, 2026.

    About Finance Commission

    • Establishment: The Finance Commission (FC) of India was established by the President in 1951 under Article 280 of the Indian Constitution.
    • Purpose: Its primary role is to define and regulate the financial relations between the central government and the individual state governments.
    • Legislative Framework: The Finance Commission (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act, 1951, further outlines the qualifications, appointment, disqualification, term, eligibility, and powers of the Finance Commission.
    • Composition: Appointed every five years, the FC comprises a chairman and four other members.
    • Evolution: Since the First FC, changes in India’s macroeconomic landscape have significantly influenced the Commission’s recommendations.

    Constitutional Provisions

    • Article 268: Facilitates the levy of duties by the Centre, with collection and retention by the States.
    • Article 280: Outlines the FC’s composition, qualifications for members, and its terms of reference. It mandates the FC to recommend the distribution of net tax proceeds between the Union and States and the allocation among States. It also addresses the financial relations between the Union and States and the devolution of unplanned revenue resources.

    Key Functions of the Finance Commission

    • Tax Devolution: Recommends how net tax proceeds should be distributed between the Center and States.
    • Grants-in-Aid: Determines the principles governing these grants to States.
    • Augmenting State Funds: Advises on measures to enhance the States’ Consolidated Funds to support local bodies and panchayats, based on State Finance Commissions’ recommendations.
    • Other Financial Functions: Addresses any other financial matters referred by the President.

    Members of the Finance Commission

    • Structure and Standards: The Finance Commission (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act, 1951, provides a structured format and global standards for the FC.
    • Qualifications and Powers: Specifies rules for members’ qualifications, disqualification, appointment, term, eligibility, and powers.
    • Composition: The Chairman is chosen for their experience in public affairs. The other members are selected based on their judicial experience, knowledge of government finances, administrative and financial expertise, or special economic knowledge.

    Challenges for the 16th Finance Commission

    • Overlap with GST Council: The coexistence with the GST Council, a permanent constitutional body, presents a new challenge.
    • Conflict of Interest: Decisions by the GST Council on tax rates could impact the FC’s revenue-sharing calculations.
    • Feasibility of Recommendations: While the Centre often adopts the FC’s suggestions on tax devolution and fiscal targets, other recommendations may be overlooked.

    Major Outstanding Recommendations

    • Fiscal Council Creation: The 15th FC proposed a Fiscal Council for collective macro-fiscal management, but the government has shown reluctance.
    • Non-Lapsable Fund for Internal Security: Though the Centre agreed ‘in principle’ to establish this fund, its implementation details are pending.

  • Understanding Rat-Hole Mining

    rat-hole

    Central Idea

    • The rescue operation in Uttarakhand using rat-hole mining, a method banned for its hazardous nature and environmental impact, brings to light the complexities and challenges of mining practices in India.

    What is Rat-Hole Mining?

    • Description: A primitive and hazardous method of mining involving digging small tunnels, just large enough for a person to crawl through, to extract coal.
    • Types:
      • Side-Cutting: Following a visible coal seam on hill slopes.
      • Box-Cutting: Involves digging a pit and then creating horizontal tunnels.
    • Irony: Thecued workers from Assam, a region that lost lives to rat-hole mining in Meghalaya, were ironically saved using the same method.

    Why is Rat-Hole Mining Banned?

    • Location: Prevalent in Meghalaya, a Sixth Schedule State where central mining laws don’t apply.
    • Risks: Asphyxiation, mine collapse, flooding, and severe environmental impacts.
    • NGT Ban (2014): Due to safety hazards and environmental degradation, including river pollution.
    • Continued Illegal Mining: Despite the ban, illegal mining and transportation persist, with significant loss of lives (e.g., 17 miners drowned in 2018 in East Jaintia Hills).

    Factors Leading to the NGT Ban

    • Activism: Environmental and human rights groups highlighted the dangers for two decades.
    • Child Labor: Reports estimated around 70,000 children, mostly from Bangladesh and Nepal, were employed in these mines.
    • Official Acknowledgment: Under pressure, the State admitted to child labor in 2013, leading to the NGT ban in 2014.

    Feasibility of such mining

    • Economic Viability: Thin coal seams in Meghalaya make rat-hole mining more economically feasible than open-cast mining.
    • Coal Reserves: Meghalaya has significant coal reserves dating back to the Eocene age.
    • Government Action: Meghalaya announced the approval of mining leases for ‘scientific’ mining in 2023.
    • Concerns: Skepticism remains among anti-mining activists about the implementation of sustainable and legal mining practices.

    Conclusion

    • While the approval of ‘scientific’ mining offers a legal and potentially safer avenue, it remains to be seen how effectively it will replace the dangerous and unregulated rat-hole mining, especially in regions with unique geological and socio-political contexts like Meghalaya.