The Ministry of Defence issued the Request for Proposal (RFP) for the indigenous Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA) programme to shortlisted private firms.
Developed to meet long-term requirements of the Indian Air Force
Being designed by the Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA)
Key Features
Stealth capability
Materials Used:
Carbon composites
Radar-absorbent coatings containing ferrite or iron ball paint
Composite polymers and graphene-based materials
Advanced avionics includes:
AESA radar
Sensor fusion
Electronic warfare suites
Helmet-mounted displays
Supercruise capability (Supersonic speed in Dry Thrust)
Next-generation combat systems
Programme Highlights
Government plans to build five prototypes
Selected private company will partner with ADA
Part of the “Make in India” and defence indigenisation push
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) reportedly excluded from current process
Consider the following statements regarding the fifth-generation fighter jet configurations of India and Russia: 1.The Sukhoi Su-57, Russia’s operational fifth-generation stealth fighter, features supercruise capabilities but utilizes conventional round exhaust nozzles. 2.Under proposed partnerships, Russia has offered a twin-seat variant of the Su-57, which allows a second crew member to manage manned-unmanned teaming operations with stealth drones. 3.India’s indigenous fifth-generation Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA) is being developed and manufactured solely under the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), with zero foreign collaboration for its engines. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Scientists from Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute discovered a new evergreen tree species, Humboldtia nairiana, in Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuary.
About the Species
Belongs to the genus Humboldtia
Found in riparian forests of the southern Western Ghats
Named in honour of plant biotechnologist G.M. Nair
Discovery
First collected during a 2010 floristic survey along the Cheenikkala-Pandimotta forest trail
Seedlings were conserved ex-situ at the JNTBGRI Arboretum
Flowering and fruiting observed in 2022
Morphological studies confirmed it as a new species
Distribution
Strictly endemic to Kerala
Known only from the Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve
Conservation Status
Wild population is fragile and limited
Categorised as “Data Deficient” under IUCN criteria
Highlights need for habitat protection and field monitoring
Ecological Importance
Adds to the biodiversity significance of the Western Ghats
Shows importance of riparian forest ecosystems
Strengthens conservation value of Agasthyamala region
About Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve
Part of the Western Ghats
UNESCO-recognised biosphere reserve
Known for high endemism and rich biodiversity
[2019] “Neyyar, Peppara and Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuaries” are part of which of the following?
A rare dragonfly species, the Long-tailed Duskhawker, has been rediscovered in Arunachal Pradesh after 110 years in Namdapha National Park and Tiger Reserve.
About the Species
Scientific name: Gynacantha khasiaca
Belongs to the order Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies)
Known for:
Near 360° vision
Compound eyes with thousands of lenses
Ability to hover still in air
Rediscovery
Last recorded in 1914 from the erstwhile Abor Hills
Rediscovered at Deban in Namdapha National Park in October 2024
Study published in the Journal of Threatened Taxa
Ecological Importance of Dragonflies
Dragonflies and damselflies are:
Predators and prey in freshwater ecosystems
Indicators of healthy aquatic habitats
Important for ecological balance
Odonata Diversity
Global: 6,442 species across 693 genera
India: 504 species and 27 subspecies
Arunachal Pradesh: Around 110 species recorded
Distribution of Long-tailed Duskhawker
Apart from Arunachal Pradesh, reported from:
Assam
Maharashtra
Meghalaya
Uttarakhand
West Bengal
Significance of Rediscovery
Highlights rich biodiversity of Northeast India
Emphasises habitat protection and biodiversity monitoring
Shows importance of citizen science in conservation
About Namdapha National Park
Located in Changlang district, Arunachal Pradesh
One of India’s largest protected areas
Known for tropical rainforests and rich wildlife diversity
[2017] Due to some reasons, if there is a huge fall in the population of species of butterflies, what could be its likely consequence/consequences? 1. Pollination of some plants could be adversely affected. 2. There could be a drastic increase in the fungal infections of some cultivated plants. 3. It could lead to a fall in the population of some species of wasps, spiders and birds. Select the correct using the code given below:
India’s critical infrastructure security has come into focus amid rising concerns over cyber threats targeting IoT-enabled systems used in energy, transport, communications and industrial networks. Recently, there were warnings from India’s National Cyber Security Coordinator that highlight that traditional cyber defences are no longer adequate against increasingly sophisticated attacks on critical systems.
What Constitutes Critical Infrastructure in India?
Critical Information Infrastructure (CII): Systems whose incapacitation can severely impact national security, economy, public health or safety.
Major Sectors
Energy: Power grids, oil and gas networks.
Transport: Railways, airports, ports and highways.
Telecommunications: Internet backbone and communication networks.
Banking & Finance: Payment systems and financial infrastructure.
Healthcare: Hospital networks and medical databases.
Strategic Systems: Defence, satellites and emergency services
Why has digital transformation increased vulnerabilities in critical infrastructure?
Digital Integration: Connects traditionally isolated infrastructure systems with internet-enabled networks, increasing exposure to cyber risks. Earlier, local control systems operated independently; today they function through networked environments.
Automation Expansion: Enables predictive maintenance, remote monitoring and optimisation across power plants, chemical industries, transport systems and refineries. Greater connectivity, however, increases the possibility of remote compromise.
IoT Proliferation: Expands attack surfaces through connected devices such as cameras, GPS systems, industrial controllers, water-level sensors and smart monitors that continuously exchange data.
Systemic Dependence: Creates cascading risks because disruption in one sector may trigger failures across supply chains, communication networks and essential services.
National Security Exposure: Converts technical vulnerabilities into strategic risks as attacks on infrastructure can disrupt economic stability and public order.
How has the convergence of IT, OT and IoT transformed security risks?
Information Technology (IT): Processes and stores digital data through servers, cloud systems and computational networks.
Operational Technology (OT): Controls physical systems such as industrial machinery, transport systems and manufacturing plants.
IoT Connectivity: Integrates physical infrastructure with digital control systems using sensors, controllers and automated devices.
Control Vulnerability: Allows compromised IoT systems to manipulate physical operations. Breached devices may alter industrial controls or operational parameters.
Invisible Threats: Creates hidden security risks through malicious firmware, embedded control pathways or hardware-level vulnerabilities.
Trojan Risks: Enables insertion of concealed vulnerabilities that remain dormant but can later disrupt systems or facilitate surveillance.
Why are conventional cybersecurity measures insufficient for critical infrastructure?
Limited Scope: Cybersecurity measures such as server protection, anti-virus systems and breach prevention primarily secure digital layers but may not protect embedded physical systems.
Physical-Digital Interdependence: Requires security frameworks that protect not only software but also hardware, sensors and communication pathways.
Critical Infrastructure Sensitivity: Demands higher scrutiny because disruption may directly affect public safety and strategic operations.
Procurement Gaps: Weak tender conditions often fail to prioritise trusted products or deep security evaluation.
Compliance Weakness: Eligibility assessments frequently focus on paperwork rather than hardware authenticity, origin verification and operational vulnerability.
Institutional Enforcement Deficit: Existing IT and IoT guidelines remain inadequately enforced for national-level infrastructure.
Examples
SCADA Systems: Earlier local process control systems managed industrial operations through Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition systems; today many are internet-connected.
CERT-In: Strengthens cyber response capacity through incident monitoring and emergency response protocols but does not fully secure infrastructure hardware.
How do procurement and certification weaknesses create national security risks?
Trusted Procurement Deficit: Allows deployment of imported systems without rigorous security verification.
Security Evaluation Gaps: Weak scrutiny of design origin, manufacturing authenticity and operational vulnerabilities increases risk of embedded backdoors.
Certification Challenges: Existing testing procedures remain lengthy and unevenly enforced across infrastructure sectors.
Imported Device Risk: Raises concern over GPS-enabled electronic locks and communication systems manufactured abroad but deployed in sensitive supply chains.
STQC Certification: Recent certification of cameras by Standardisation Testing and Quality Certification (STQC) ensures devices do not perform unintended control or data-sharing functions. However, certification remains time-consuming and inconsistently applied across IoT devices.
Why is fuel transportation emerging as a major infrastructure vulnerability?
Fuel Supply Digitisation: Integrates tankers with GPS tracking, digital monitoring and IoT-enabled electronic locking systems.
Operational Dependence: Makes petroleum logistics increasingly dependent on remote communication technologies.
Remote Disruption Risk: Creates vulnerability if vehicle tracking systems or e-locks are imported, compromised or improperly certified.
Supply Chain Exposure: Enables interference with fuel distribution systems, affecting energy security and economic continuity.
Example
Petroleum Tankers: Earlier protected through seals, locks and keys; now increasingly dependent on IoT-based keyless systems and GPS-enabled monitoring.
Recent U.S. Case: A cyberattack on fuel storage systems reported by CNN demonstrates how attacks on energy systems can disrupt supply chains.
How can India strengthen critical infrastructure resilience?
Trusted Technology Ecosystem: Prioritises secure and trusted domestic technologies for sensitive sectors.
Certification Enforcement: Ensures rigorous security testing for IoT devices deployed in national infrastructure.
Supply Chain Security: Strengthens scrutiny of hardware origin, firmware integrity and manufacturing authenticity.
Cyber-Physical Security Framework: Integrates IT, OT and IoT protection rather than treating cybersecurity as a software issue alone.
Awareness Generation: Encourages industrial users, utilities and government agencies to recognise cyber risks in connected systems.
Continuous Vigilance: Supports real-time monitoring and regular security audits of infrastructure networks.
Conclusion
India’s critical infrastructure is undergoing rapid digital transformation through automation, IoT and AI, improving efficiency and service delivery across sectors. However, increasing interconnection between digital and physical systems has also expanded vulnerabilities to cyberattacks, supply-chain risks and remote disruptions. In an era of connected systems, infrastructure resilience has become inseparable from national security and economic stability.
PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2022] What are the different elements of cyber security? Keeping in view the challenges in cyber security, examine the extent to which India has successfully developed a comprehensive National Cyber Security Strategy.
Linkage: The PYQ tests understanding of cyber security architecture, vulnerabilities and institutional preparedness in India’s digital ecosystem. The article expands the cyber security debate beyond data protection to critical infrastructure protection.
The Kerala government acted against houseboat pollution in Vembanad Lake following directions from the Kerala High Court.
About Vembanad Lake
Largest lake in Kerala and longest lake in India
Largest tropical wetland ecosystem on India’s southwest coast
Also called Vembanad Kayal, Punnamada Lake, Kochi Lake
Spread across Alappuzha, Kottayam, and Ernakulam districts
Source Rivers
Fed by:
Pampa
Meenachil
Achankovil
Manimala
Ecological Importance
Ramsar Site since 2002
Supports fisheries, biodiversity, flood control, and groundwater recharge
Part of National Wetlands Conservation Programme
Agriculture
Famous for below sea-level farming in the Kuttanad region
Tourism and Culture
Major part of Kerala backwaters tourism
Known for houseboats and inland water transport
Hosts Nehru Trophy Snake Boat Race in August
[2022] Consider the following pairs : Wetland/Lake Location 1. Hokera Wetland: Punjab 2. Renuka Wetland: Himachal Pradesh 3. Rudrasagar Lake: Tripura 4. Sasthamkotta Lake: Tamil Nadu How many pairs given above are correctly matched?
The Indian rupee recently crossed ₹96 per U.S. dollar in May 2025, compared to nearly ₹85 a year earlier. This marked a sharp depreciation amid global geopolitical tensions, foreign portfolio outflows, and rising import dependence.
Why does the Indian rupee continue to depreciate despite India’s growing economy?
Demand-Supply Dynamics: Currency prices depend on market demand relative to other currencies. A higher demand for dollars than rupees weakens the rupee.
Import Dependence: India imports large quantities of crude oil, electronics, machinery, and industrial inputs, increasing demand for dollars.
Data Point: Merchandise trade deficit worsened from USD 244.9 billion (2023-24) to USD 286.9 billion (2024-25).
Geopolitical Uncertainty: Global instability encourages investors to shift funds toward safer assets such as the U.S. dollar, strengthening it relative to emerging market currencies.
Dollar Strength: Higher U.S. interest rates attract global capital into dollar-denominated assets.
How does India’s Balance of Payments (BoP) shape the rupee’s exchange rate?
India’s Balance of Payments (BoP) directly shapes the rupee’s exchange rate by determining the net demand and supply of foreign currency within the economy.
Analyze Current Account ImpactThe Current Account reflects the net balance of trade in goods, services, and transfer payments
Merchandise Trade Deficit: Increased from USD 244.9 billion (2023-24) to USD 286.9 billion (2024-25).
Invisibles Surplus Buffers Rupee: Strong software services exports and remittances from workers abroad (especially West Asia) created a net invisible surplus rise from USD 218.8 billion to USD 263.9 billion. This creates massive inflows of foreign currency, supporting rupee stability.
Net Deficit Weakens Rupee: Because the merchandise deficit outweighs the invisibles surplus, the overall current account remains in a deficit (CAD).
Evaluate Capital Account Dynamics: The Capital Account tracks the flow of investment capital, loans, and banking capital across national borders.
Financing the Gap: India relies on foreign capital inflows to bridge the CAD.
FDI and Portfolio Inflows: Inflows from Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and Foreign Portfolio Investment (FPI) demand Indian currency. Foreigners convert USD to INR to buy assets, which strengthens the rupee.
External Borrowing Risks: Relying on short-term loans and external borrowings can cause sudden rupee volatility if global interest rates spike or investors pull funds out rapidly.
Review Exchange Rate Outcomes: The final value of the rupee hinges on the net interaction between these two accounts.
BoP Condition
Market Mechanism
Impact on Indian Rupee
Overall BoP Surplus
Capital Inflows > Current Account Deficit
Appreciates (Rupee strengthens)
Overall BoP Deficit
Capital Inflows < Current Account Deficit
Depreciates (Rupee weakens)
India’s BoP Snapshot (Figures in USD billion)
Component
2023-24
2024-25
Current Account
-26.1
-23.1
Merchandise Trade
-244.9
-286.9
Invisibles
218.8
263.9
Capital Account
89.4
116.6
FDI
54.2
4.52
Loans
6.5
29.3
Others
28.7
-17.2
Forex Reserves Change
-63.7
+5
How do foreign capital outflows weaken the rupee?
Foreign capital outflows weaken the rupee through a direct market mechanism of asset liquidation and currency conversion.
The Conversion Mechanism: When foreign portfolio investors (FPIs) decide to exit the Indian market, they liquidate their holdings in domestic stocks and bonds. This process unfolds in two distinct steps that put downward pressure on the currency:
Asset Liquidation: Investors sell Indian equities and debt instruments, receiving payments in Indian Rupees (INR).
Currency Conversion: To repatriate their capital, these investors must immediately sell their newly acquired rupees in the foreign exchange market to buy US Dollars (USD).
Supply and Demand Imbalance: The mass exit of foreign capital disrupts the equilibrium of the foreign exchange market:
Surplus of Rupee: The market experiences a sudden, heavy supply of rupees as exiting investors rush to dump the currency.
Scarcity of Dollars: Simultaneously, the demand for US dollars spikes sharply.
Depreciation: According to standard economic laws of supply and demand, an oversupply of a currency combined with intense demand for a foreign counterparty currency causes the domestic currency (the rupee) to lose value.
FPI vs. FDI Stability: The nature of the capital leaving the country dictates the severity of the exchange rate impact:
High Volatility (FPI): Foreign Portfolio Investment is highly liquid and seeking short-term financial returns. It can exit a country almost instantly, earning it the label “hot money.” This makes FPI the primary driver of sudden, sharp currency depreciation during global market panics.
Resilient Cushion (FDI): Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) involves long-term, physical investments like building factories or buying corporate infrastructure. Because these assets cannot be quickly liquidated, FDI remains stable during crises and serves as a critical structural anchor for the rupee.
Why does a falling rupee become costly for India’s economy?
Imported Inflation: Depreciation raises costs of imported goods.
Oil Burden: India imports a substantial share of crude oil, making energy prices vulnerable to currency depreciation.
Data Illustration: At ₹96 per dollar, purchasing USD 100 worth of oil requires ₹9,600, compared to ₹8,500 at ₹85 per dollar.
Inflationary Transmission: Higher fuel costs increase logistics and transportation expenses across sectors.
Manufacturing Constraints: Expensive imported raw materials raise production costs.
Growth Trade-off: Depreciation may support exports but simultaneously increases import dependence.
Does a weaker rupee improve India’s exports automatically?
Export Competitiveness: A cheaper rupee can make Indian goods more affordable globally.
Structural Constraints: Export gains remain limited when manufacturing competitiveness is weak.
Even if the rupee depreciates from ₹96 to ₹120, export gains may remain modest due to supply-side constraints.
Import Dependence in Manufacturing: Many exporters rely on imported inputs, reducing net gains from depreciation.
What role does the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) play in defending the rupee?
Forex Intervention: RBI sells dollars from reserves to reduce excessive rupee depreciation.
Market Stabilisation: Dollar sales increase dollar supply in forex markets and support rupee demand.
Forex Reserve Strength: India’s reserves stood at approximately USD 691 billion by March 2026, sufficient for around 10.8 months of imports.
Intervention Evidence: RBI actively intervened during October 2024-January 2025 and August-December 2025.
Limitation: RBI can moderate volatility but cannot permanently reverse depreciation caused by structural deficits.
Why is oil dependency central to rupee vulnerability?
Crude Oil Imports: India imports nearly 85% of its crude oil requirement, increasing dollar demand.
Geopolitical Linkage: Conflicts in energy-producing regions raise crude prices, amplifying pressure on the rupee.
Policy Imperative: Reducing oil dependence through renewables, EVs, ethanol blending, and domestic energy diversification strengthens currency stability.
Conclusion
The rupee’s depreciation reflects deeper structural realities of India’s external sector rather than merely short-term market fluctuations. Persistent trade deficits, dependence on imported oil, volatile portfolio flows, and geopolitical disruptions continue to pressure the currency. While RBI intervention and strong forex reserves provide temporary insulation, durable currency stability ultimately depends on strengthening exports, reducing import dependence, and improving external sector resilience.
PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2018] How would the recent phenomena of protectionism and currency manipulations in world trade affect macroeconomic stability of India?
Linkage: The PYQ tests understanding of exchange rate volatility, external sector vulnerabilities, capital flows, and macroeconomic stability. The article explains how rupee depreciation, trade deficits, foreign capital outflows, geopolitical tensions, and dollar strengthening affect India’s macroeconomic stability and Balance of Payments.
The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change released insights from India’s first national report on the Nagoya Protocol related to Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS), highlighting India’s progress in ensuring equitable sharing of benefits arising from biological resources.
About the Nagoya Protocol
Adopted Under: Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
Objective: To ensure Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilisation of genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge.
What is Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS)?
ABS means: Users of biological resources must share benefits with:
Local communities
Indigenous groups
Traditional knowledge holders
Benefits can include:
Monetary compensation
Technology transfer
Community development
Conservation support
Key Findings of the Report
Large-Scale Implementation Between 2017 and 2025: 12,830 ABS approvals granted.
India’s Global Contribution
India issued:
3,556 Internationally Recognised Certificates of Compliance (IRCCs)
Around 60% of global issuance.
Revenue Generated: ₹216.31 crore realised by: National Biodiversity Authority (NBA)
Community Benefit: ₹139.69 crore disbursed to benefit claimers and local communities.
[2023] Consider the following statements: 1. In Biodiversity the India, Management Committees are key to the realization of the objectives of the Nagoya Protocol. 2. The Biodiversity Management Committees have important functions in determining access and benefit sharing, including the power to levy collection fees on the access of biological resources within its jurisdiction. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman highlighted concerns regarding “3Fs” Fuel, Fertiliser and Foreign Exchange amid the economic impact of the ongoing West Asia crisis.
Key Economic Concerns
Rupee Depreciation
Rupee weakened sharply against the U.S. dollar after the war began.
RBI reportedly intervened heavily in forex markets.
Foreign Portfolio Investment (FPI) Outflows
Foreign investors sold: Indian stocks and bonds leading to:
Capital outflows
Pressure on forex reserves
Forex Reserves Decline
India’s forex reserves reportedly fell significantly compared to pre-war levels.
Government Measures Taken
Higher import duty on:
Gold
Silver
Platinum
Restrictions on duty-free gold imports
Fuel price hikes
Appeals to reduce non-essential imports and foreign travel
[2022] With reference to the Indian economy, consider the following statements: 1. If the inflation is too high, Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is likely to buy government securities. 2. If the rupee is rapidly depreciating, RBI is likely to sell dollars in the market. 3. If interest rates in the USA or European Union were to fall, that is likely to induce RBI to buy dollars
An article in The Hindu explained the scientific principles behind thermometers, temperature scales, absolute zero, and ultra-cold atomic physics, highlighting how measurement of temperature evolved from mercury thermometers to quantum physics-based studies of cold atoms.
What is Temperature?
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of atoms and molecules in a substance.
When heat is supplied:
Atoms and molecules move faster.
When heat is removed:
Their motion slows down.
Thus, temperature reflects the degree of atomic agitation inside matter.
Celsius Scale
Developed by: Anders Celsius
Basis of the Scale
0°C: Freezing point of water
100°C: Boiling point of water
The interval between these two points is divided into 100 equal parts.
Mercury Thermometers
Why Mercury is Used
Uniform expansion on heating
Easily visible liquid metal
Good thermal conductor
Digital Thermometers
Modern digital thermometers use Semiconductor materials
Principle
Semiconductors conduct limited electricity.
Higher temperature releases more free electrons.
Increased electric current is measured electronically and converted into temperature readings.
[2021] In a pressure cooker, the temperature at which the food is cooked depends mainly upon which of the following? 1. Area of the hole in the lid 2. Temperature of the flame
3. Weight of the lid Select the correct answer using the code given below.
The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) released the report of the Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) on revising the base year of the All-India Index of Industrial Production (IIP) from 2011-12 to 2022-23.
About IIP
The Index of Industrial Production (IIP) measures: Growth in industrial activity in India.
Published By: National Statistical Office (NSO) Under MoSPI
Technical Advisory Committee (TAC-IIP)
Chairman: Mridul K. Saggar
Constituted: September 2024
Purpose
Guide the revision of IIP base year.
Improve methodology, coverage, and accuracy.
Major Changes in New IIP Series (2022-23)
Expanded Coverage: New sectors included:
Minor minerals
Rare earth minerals
Gas supply
Water supply
Sewerage and waste management
Revised Item Basket
Total products: 1,042
Mapped into: 463 item groups
Based on: National Industrial Classification (NIC)-2025
National Industrial Classification (NIC)-2025
National Industrial Classification (NIC) is India’s official system for classifying economic and industrial activities.
It helps in:
Collection of statistical data
Industrial surveys
National accounts compilation
Economic analysis and policy formulation
Released by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) through the National Statistical Office (NSO).
[2012] In India the overall Index of Industrial Production, the Indices of Eighth Core Industries have combined weight of 37.90%. Which of the following are among those Eight Core Industries? 1. Cement 2. Fertilizers 3. Natural Gas 4. Refinery products 5. Textiles Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
