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GS Paper: GS3

  • RBI data shows why government is concerned about dollars flowing outs

    Why in the News?

    RBI’s Annual Report 2025-26 showed that India’s Balance of Payments (BoP) deficit widened sharply to $30.8 billion in 2025-26, compared to $5 billion in 2024-25. This marks a major reversal from the $63.7 billion surplus in 2023-24. This highlights rising pressure on India’s external sector due to weaker foreign investments and high dollar outflows for imports such as oil and gold.

    What is Balance of Payments (BoP)?

    The Balance of Payments (BoP) is a systematic record of all economic transactions between a country and the rest of the world during a specific period (usually a year). It tracks the flow of foreign currency (mainly dollars) into and out of the country. In simple terms, BoP shows whether a country is earning more dollars than it spends or spending more than it earns.

    What are the components of BoP?

    1. Current Account (Trade and Income Flows): It records transactions related to:
      1. Goods Trade: Exports and imports of merchandise (e.g., crude oil, machinery).
      2. Services Trade: IT services, tourism, consulting, shipping.
      3. Remittances: Money sent by Indians working abroad.
      4. Investment Income: Interest, dividends, profits.
      5. Example: India imports crude oil and exports IT services.
    2. Capital Account: Investments and Capital Flows: It records:
      1. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): Long-term investments in industries.
      2. Foreign Portfolio Investment (FPI): Investment in stocks and bonds.
      3. External Borrowings: Loans from abroad.
      4. Banking Capital and Other Transfers
      5. Example: A foreign company investing in India or FIIs buying Indian shares.

    How is BoP interpreted?

    1. BoP Surplus: Dollar inflows exceed outflows, strengthens forex reserves.
    2. BoP Deficit: Dollar outflows exceed inflows, RBI may use foreign exchange reserves to bridge the gap.
    3. In 2025-26, India recorded a BoP deficit of $30.8 billion, meaning the country spent more foreign currency than it received, raising concerns about external sector stability.

    Why has India’s Balance of Payments deteriorated sharply in 2025-26?

    1. Balance of Payments Deficit: India recorded a BoP deficit of $30.8 billion in 2025-26, compared to $5 billion in 2024-25, showing a sharp deterioration in external sector stability.
    2. Sharp Reversal: India moved from a BoP surplus of $63.7 billion in 2023-24 to a large deficit in just two years, indicating weakening capital inflows.
    3. Foreign Exchange Pressure: RBI had to finance the deficit through foreign exchange reserves, leading to reserve depletion.
    4. Investment Slowdown: Net foreign investment inflows into India witnessed a sharp decline, worsening the external financing gap.

    How do the current account and capital account shape India’s external position?

    1. Current Account: Captures trade in goods and services, remittances, and cross-border income flows.
    2. Capital Account: Includes foreign direct investment (FDI), foreign portfolio investment (FPI), external borrowings, and assistance.
    3. Persistent Current Account Deficit (CAD): India generally imports more than it exports, making CAD a structural feature of the economy.
    4. Trade Deficit: India’s merchandise trade deficit stood at $251.6 billion in 2025–26, improving from $286.9 billion in the previous year, but still remaining substantially large.
    5. Services Surplus (‘Invisible Trade’): India earned a services surplus of $221.4 billion in 2025-26, lower than $263.9 billion in 2024-25, reducing the cushion available against merchandise deficits.

    Why did the capital account weaken despite India’s growth story?

    1. Capital Account Contraction: Capital account surplus declined sharply to $72 million in 2025-26, compared to $16.6 billion in 2024-25. This indicates weak external financing.
    2. Funds Held Abroad: Indians parked larger amounts abroad through delayed export receipts, advance import payments, and overseas holdings. This creates a deficit of $22.6 billion, compared to $7.4 billion previously.
    3. Geopolitical Impact: Trade disruptions linked to the West Asia crisis increased payment uncertainties and external pressures.
    4. Foreign Portfolio Investor (FPI) Outflows: FPIs withdrew $4.3 billion more than they invested in 2025-26, reversing the previous trend where inflows exceeded outflows.

    Why is the government especially concerned about oil and gold imports?

    1. Oil Dependence: India imports nearly 90% of its crude oil requirement, making external balances highly vulnerable to global oil price shocks.
    2. Gold Demand: India produces negligible gold domestically despite large consumer demand, increasing pressure on dollar reserves.
    3. Dollar Outflow: A substantial portion of India’s foreign exchange outflow is used to pay for oil and gold imports.
    4. Policy Response: The government raised import duty on gold and silver from 6% to 15% and restricted imports of several silver categories to reduce external pressure.
    5. Consumption Advisory: Prime Minister Narendra Modi urged citizens to moderate fuel consumption and gold purchases, reflecting concern regarding dollar outflows.

    What are the broader macroeconomic implications of a worsening BoP deficit?

    1. Forex Reserve Depletion: Persistent BoP deficits force RBI to utilise foreign exchange reserves, reducing external buffers.
    2. Currency Pressure: Sustained dollar outflows may weaken the Indian Rupee, increasing imported inflation.
    3. Inflationary Impact: Higher oil import costs raise transportation and manufacturing expenses.
    4. External Vulnerability: Reduced capital inflows increase dependence on volatile external borrowing.
    5. Investor Sentiment: Weak BoP signals may affect foreign investor confidence and macroeconomic stability perceptions.

    Can India reduce structural vulnerability in its external sector?

    1. Export Diversification: Strengthens merchandise exports beyond traditional sectors.
    2. Manufacturing Expansion: Supports Make in India and production-linked incentives to reduce import dependence.
    3. Energy Transition: Accelerates renewable energy and domestic energy security to reduce oil import dependence.
    4. Financial Stability: Enhances resilience through stable FDI rather than volatile portfolio flows.
    5. Gold Monetisation: Encourages financialisation of savings through sovereign gold bonds and monetisation schemes.

    Conclusion

    RBI’s latest data highlights a growing imbalance in India’s external sector marked by widening dollar outflows, weakening foreign investments, and structural dependence on imported commodities. While India’s strong services exports continue to provide resilience, sustaining external stability will require export competitiveness, reduced import dependence, stable capital inflows, and prudent macroeconomic management.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2019] How would the recent phenomena of protectionism and currency manipulations in world trade affect macroeconomic stability of India?

    Linkage: India’s worsening Balance of Payments (BoP) and rising dollar outflows directly affect macroeconomic stability, exchange rate management, foreign exchange reserves, and external vulnerability. The issue links external trade dynamics with rupee stability and capital flows.

  • How ACs catch fire, and the role temperature plays in it

    Why in the News?

    A major fire in a residential apartment in Delhi’s Dwarka area, allegedly triggered by an AC blast, led to fatalities during an intense heatwave. The incident has drawn attention to the rising number of air-conditioner fire accidents during summers, as prolonged AC usage and extreme temperatures increase overheating and electrical risks.

    What are Air Conditioners (ACs)?

    Air conditioners (ACs) are electrical cooling devices that reduce indoor temperature and humidity by removing heat from enclosed spaces and releasing it outside through a refrigeration cycle. 

    They work using components such as a compressor, condenser, evaporator, and refrigerant gas to maintain comfortable room temperatures, especially during extreme summers and heatwaves.

    Why are AC fire incidents increasing during extreme summers?

    1. Heatwave Conditions: Rising ambient temperatures force ACs to operate continuously for longer hours, increasing thermal stress on internal components.
    2. Higher Cooling Load: Elevated outdoor temperatures reduce cooling efficiency, compelling compressors to work harder and consume more electricity.
    3. Urban Dependence: Increased AC penetration in cities raises cumulative electricity demand and appliance stress, particularly in densely populated apartments.
    4. Climate Linkage: More frequent and intense heatwaves have expanded cooling requirements, converting household cooling devices into a potential urban safety concern.
    5. Delhi Case Example: The Dwarka apartment fire allegedly linked to an AC blast highlighted the severe consequences of overheating in enclosed residential spaces.

    How do air conditioners catch fire?

    1. Overheating: Continuous operation during peak summers causes excessive heat generation in internal components, wiring, and insulation systems.
    2. Insulation Damage: Excessive heat degrades insulation materials inside the AC, exposing electrical parts and increasing ignition risk.
    3. Short Circuits: Electrical current may flow through unintended paths due to damaged wiring, overheating, or loose electrical connections, generating sparks capable of igniting combustible materials.
    4. Electrical Overload: Excessive current flow places stress on circuits and electrical systems, increasing fire probability.
    5. Faulty Components: Damaged compressors, malfunctioning parts, and ageing electrical systems increase operational risks.
    6. Indoor Unit Vulnerability: While external compressor units generally overheat, indoor AC units pose higher fire risks because electrical sparks generated internally can ignite surrounding household materials.

    Major causes of AC overheating

    How do blocked filters increase fire risk?

    1. Blocked Air Filters: Dust accumulation restricts airflow, forcing the AC to work harder and causing overheating.
    2. Cooling Inefficiency: Reduced ventilation decreases heat dissipation capacity and elevates internal temperature.

    How do electrical faults trigger AC fires?

    1. Short Circuits: Loose wiring or damaged electrical circuits create sparks that may ignite nearby combustible materials.
    2. Voltage Fluctuation: Irregular power supply damages sensitive AC components and accelerates system wear.
    3. Poor Wiring Quality: Faulty or substandard wiring increases overheating probability.

    Why are gas leaks dangerous in AC systems?

    1. Refrigerant Leakage: Leakage creates pressure imbalances and operational stress that may increase fire vulnerability.
    2. Compressor Stress: Improper refrigerant circulation forces compressors to overwork and malfunction.

    Why does prolonged usage increase overheating?

    1. Extended Operation: Running ACs continuously for long durations during summers overheats internal components.
    2. Component Fatigue: Persistent use accelerates wear and malfunction in motors, compressors, and circuit boards.

    Are inverter ACs safer than non-inverter ACs?

    1. Inverter Technology: Inverter AC compressors regulate speed gradually according to room temperature rather than repeatedly switching on and off.
    2. Reduced Stress: Continuous speed modulation lowers operational pressure on electrical components.
    3. Energy Efficiency: Inverter systems consume less power during sustained operation.
    4. Non-Inverter Limitation: Conventional ACs repeatedly restart compressors at full speed, increasing mechanical stress and overheating risks.
    5. Conditional Safety: Inverter ACs are relatively safer but remain vulnerable to poor installation, electrical faults, voltage fluctuation, and lack of maintenance.

    What are the warning signs of an unsafe AC system?

    1. Frequent Tripping: Repeated circuit breaker shutdown indicates excessive load or electrical faults.
    2. Unusual Noise: Buzzing or abnormal sounds may indicate compressor or motor malfunction.
    3. Burning Smell: Smell from wiring or components signals overheating.
    4. Irregular Cooling: Reduced cooling performance may indicate blocked filters, gas leakage, or compressor problems.
    5. Frequent On-Off Cycling: Repeated switching suggests electrical instability or malfunction.

    Safety measures that can reduce AC fire incidents

    How can maintenance reduce overheating risks?

    1. Regular Servicing: Ensures cleaning, component inspection, refrigerant checks, and early detection of faults.
    2. Filter Cleaning: Maintains airflow and prevents internal overheating.
    3. Dust Removal: Cleaning indoor and outdoor units reduces heat accumulation.

    How does electrical protection improve safety?

    1. Circuit Breakers: Ensures automatic disconnection during overload or short circuits.
    2. Dedicated Wiring: Supports safe electricity flow and reduces overloading.
    3. Voltage Stabiliser: Protects AC units from frequent power fluctuations.

    What temperature practices improve efficiency and safety?

    1. Optimal Temperature Setting: Maintaining temperatures between 24-26°C reduces compressor burden and energy consumption.
    2. Controlled Usage: Prevents prolonged continuous operation during extreme heat.

    Why does this issue matter for urban governance and climate resilience?

    1. Urban Fire Safety: Requires stronger residential electrical audits and appliance safety standards.
    2. Climate Adaptation Challenge: Rising temperatures are increasing dependence on cooling infrastructure.
    3. Power Infrastructure Stress: Greater electricity demand during heatwaves increases risks of overload and voltage fluctuations.
    4. Public Awareness: Safety education regarding AC maintenance and heatwave preparedness remains limited.
    5. Building Regulation: Strengthens need for fire-compliant residential design and electrical inspections.

    Conclusion

    AC fire incidents illustrate how climate change is interacting with urban infrastructure vulnerabilities to create new public safety risks. Rising temperatures, prolonged cooling demand, and inadequate electrical preparedness have increased overheating hazards. Strengthening appliance maintenance, electrical safety compliance, heatwave preparedness, and resilient urban infrastructure remains necessary to reduce climate-linked fire vulnerabilities.

    India Cooling Action Plan (ICAP), 2019India Cooling Action Plan (ICAP), launched by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), is the world’s first comprehensive national cooling strategy aimed at addressing rising cooling demand while ensuring environmental sustainability and energy efficiency.Cooling Demand Reduction: Targets a 20-25% reduction in cooling demand by 2037-38 across residential, commercial, transport, and cold-chain sectors through sustainable cooling technologies and better urban planning.
    Energy Efficiency: Encourages adoption of energy-efficient cooling appliances, including higher star-rated ACs and sustainable building designs to reduce electricity consumption.Climate Sustainability: Promotes reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and transition toward environmentally safer refrigerants with lower global warming potential.
    Thermal Comfort for All: Ensures affordable and accessible cooling, especially for vulnerable populations facing heat stress.Skilling and Innovation: Supports workforce development for cooling technicians and promotes domestic manufacturing under sustainable standards.

    Why is ICAP relevant to AC fire incidents?
    Reduced Cooling Load: Efficient cooling systems lower overheating risk during prolonged use.Energy Management: Reduced electricity demand decreases chances of voltage fluctuations and electrical overloads during heatwaves.Safer Cooling Infrastructure: Encourages improved appliance efficiency and maintenance practices.
    National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA): Heatwave Guidelines. The NDMA has issued heatwave management guidelines to reduce mortality, infrastructure stress, and public health risks arising from extreme temperatures.
    Preparedness: Encourages Heat Action Plans (HAPs) at city and district levels involving early warning systems, emergency coordination, hospital readiness, and inter-agency planning.
    Early Warning Systems: Facilitates temperature alerts through IMD forecasts to prepare citizens and institutions for extreme heat events.
    Public Awareness: Promotes behavioural adaptation through advisories on hydration, avoiding peak heat exposure, efficient appliance use, and household safety.
    Infrastructure Resilience: Encourages cooling shelters, green cover expansion, and urban heat mitigation measures.
    Vulnerable Group Protection: Prioritises elderly persons, outdoor workers, children, and economically weaker populations during heat stress.
    Why are NDMA Heatwave Guidelines relevant here?
    Heatwave-Driven AC Usage: Prolonged extreme temperatures increase AC dependence, overheating risks, and electricity demand.
    Urban Risk Management: Heat preparedness indirectly reduces appliance-related fire hazards.

  • Balance of Payments (BoP) Deficit & Dollar Outflow

    Why in the news?

    The Reserve Bank of India’s (RBI) Annual Report for 2025-26 revealed that India’s Balance of Payments (BoP) stood at a major deficit of $30.8 billion, marking an alarmingly sharp, six-fold increase over the previous year’s deficit.

    Key Findings

    • The Deficit Surge: The overall BoP went from a surplus of $63.7 billion in 2023-24 to a deficit of $5 billion in 2024-25, before cascading further to a $30.8 billion deficit in 2025-26 (provisional data up to Dec 31).
    • Depletion of Forex: To plug this widening gap, the RBI had to draw directly from India’s foreign exchange reserves, causing a significant dent in national buffers.

    Understanding the Double Whammy: Current vs. Capital Account

    The sudden collapse of India’s BoP position is driven by structural slippages in both component accounts:

    1. Widening Current Account Deficit (CAD)

    • Status: Hit a three-year high of $30.2 billion in 2025-26.
    • The Core Mechanism: While the physical trade deficit (merchandise) actually improved slightly—dropping to $251.6 billion from $286.9 billion—the surplus from India’s “invisibles” (software, services, and remittances) shrank much faster (falling from $263.9 billion to $221.4 billion).
    • Result: The services sector could no longer cushion the trade deficit, causing CAD to expand.

    2. Near-Total Collapse of the Capital Account Surplus

    • Status: Shrank by an unprecedented 99.5%, collapsing down to a mere $72 million from $16.6 billion the year prior.
    • Driven by “Other Capital”: Hit a record deficit of $22.6 billion. This reflects delayed export receipts, advance payments for imports amidst geopolitical friction, and domestic funds being parked abroad.
    • Foreign Portfolio Investment (FPI) Flight: Reversing a two-year positive streak, FPIs turned into net sellers, pulling out $4.3 billion more from Indian markets than they put in.

    [2014] With reference to Balance of Payments, which of the following constitutes/constitute the Current Account?
    1.Balance of invisibles
    2.Special Drawing Rights
    3.Balance of trade
    Select the correct answer using the codes given below;

    [A] 1 only

    [B] .2 and 3 only

    [C] .1 and 3 only

    [D] 1, 2 and 3

  • SkyCast System

    Why in the news?

    Jitendra Singh inaugurated India’s first SkyCast System at Indira Gandhi International Airport under Mission Mausam.

    What is SkyCast?

    SkyCast is an advanced integrated aviation weather monitoring and forecasting system that provides:

    • Real-time weather intelligence
    • Fog monitoring
    • Turbulence detection
    • High-impact weather forecasting

    Key Features

    • Helps reduce:
      • Flight delays
      • Diversions
      • Cancellations
    • Provides short-term weather alerts to pilots and air traffic controllers
    • Monitors atmosphere up to nearly 3 km above airport

    Technologies Used

    SkyCast integrates:

    • Radar Wind Profiler
    • SODAR
    • Microwave Radiometer
    • Ground-based Fog Aerosol Spectrometer (GFAS)
    • Lidar-based Ceilometer

    [2025] GPS-Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) uses a system of ground stations to provide necessary augmentation. Which of the following statements is/are correct in respect of GAGAN?
    I. It is designed to provide additional accuracy and integrity.
    II. It will allow more uniform and high quality air traffic management.
    III. It will provide benefits only in aviation but not in other modes of transportation.
    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    [A] I, II and III

    [B] II and III only

    [C] I only

    [D] I and II only

  • BSF Border Security Infrastructure in Gujarat

    Why in the news?

    Amit Shah inaugurated the G-7 and G-13 Border Out Posts (BOPs) in Bhuj, Gujarat, and highlighted plans to strengthen border security through advanced technology and CISF-style security grids.

    Key Highlights

    • New BOPs inaugurated along the India-Pakistan border in Gujarat
    • Focus on:
      • Technological fencing
      • Smart border security
      • Territorial security concept
      • Leak-proof security grid

    About BSF (Border Security Force):

    • India’s “First Line of Defence”
    • Comes under the Ministry of Home Affairs
    • Guards borders with Pakistan and Bangladesh
    • Operates in extreme conditions from:
      • Desert regions
      • Marshlands
      • Forests
      • High-altitude areas

    Strategic Areas

    Sir Creek

    • The marshy disputed region between India and Pakistan
    • Security-sensitive coastal area

    Harami Nala

    • Creek area near Sir Creek
    • Vulnerable to infiltration and smuggling

    [2023] Which one of the following is the best example of repeated falls in sea level, giving rise to present-day extensive marshland?

    [A] Bhitarkanika Mangroves

    [B] Marakkanam Salt Pans

    [C] Naupada Swamp

    [D] Rann of Kutch

  • Anti-Dumping Duties on Chemicals

    Why in News?

    Indian chemical industry associations and several ministries have sought a pause on anti-dumping investigations due to rising chemical prices and shortages caused by the West Asia conflict.

    What are Anti-Dumping Duties?

    • Anti-dumping duties are tariffs imposed on imported goods sold below fair market value to protect domestic industries from unfair competition.

    Key Issues Raised

    Rising Input Costs

    • Anti-dumping duties increase prices of chemical intermediates.
    • Impacts downstream sectors such as:
      • Textiles
      • Footwear
      • Packaging
      • Auto components
      • Paints

    Supply Chain Disruptions

    • West Asia conflict has caused shortages and price volatility in petrochemicals.

    Government Response

    • Duty Exemptions: Government of India exempted import duty on 40 petrochemical products till June 30.

    Indigenous Manufacturing Push

    The Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT) asked industry to explore domestic production of over 200 highly import-dependent petrochemical items.

    WTO Trade Policy Review Findings

    • 51% of India’s anti-dumping measures relate to chemicals and allied industries.
    • China is the main target of these investigations.

    India’s Chemical Trade Scenario

    • Chemical imports: about $75 billion
    • Chemical exports: about $44 billion
    • Trade deficit: around $31 billion

    [2020] With reference to the international trade of India at present, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1.India’s merchandise exports are less than its merchandise imports.
    2.India’s imports of iron and steel, chemicals, fertilisers and machinery have decreased in recent years.
    3.India’s exports of services are more than its imports of services.
    4.India suffers from an overall trade/current account deficit.
    Select the correct answer using the code given below:
    a) 1 and 2 only
    b) 2 and 4 only
    c) 3 only
    d) 1, 3 and 4 only

  • CISF Oversight for Fishing Harbours

    Why in News?

    The Ministry of Home Affairs plans to bring fishing harbours and landing centres under the security oversight of the Central Industrial Security Force (CISF) to strengthen coastal security.

    Key Highlights

    • Around 1,200 fishing harbours and landing sites to come under CISF supervision.
    • India has:
      • 1,547 notified fish landing centres and fishing harbours
      • Spread across 13 coastal States and Union Territories
    • CISF will:
      • Design security protocols
      • Guide local administration
      • Develop uniform security architecture

    Why is this Important?

    Because of large India’s coastline:

    • Extends about 7,516 km
    • Involves multiple agencies:
      • Local police
      • Indian Coast Guard
      • Indian Navy

    Lessons from 26/11 Mumbai Attacks

    • Terrorists entered Mumbai through the sea route after hijacking a fishing vessel, exposing vulnerabilities in coastal surveillance.

    About the Central Industrial Security Force

    • The Central Industrial Security Force (CISF) is a premier paramilitary organization under India’s Ministry of Home Affairs.
    • Established in 1969, it safeguards the nation’s critical industrial and infrastructure assets—including airports, seaports, power plants, and major public sector undertakings—playing a central role in India’s internal security architecture.

    [2025] With reference to the Government of India, consider the following information:
    Organization Some of its functions It works under
    I.Directorate of EnforcementEnforcement of the Fugitive Economic Offenders Act, 2018Internal Security Division- I, Ministry of Home Affairs
    II.Directorate of Revenue IntelligenceEnforces the Provisions of the Customs Act, 1962Department of Revenue, Ministry of Finance
    III.Directorate General of Systems and Data ManagementCarrying out big data analytics to assist tax officers for better policy and nabbing tax evadersDepartment of Revenue, Ministry of Finance
    In how many of the above rows is the information correctly matched?

    [A] Only one

    [B] Only two

    [C] All the three

    [D] None

  • Subsurface Lunar Ice Discovery (Chandrayaan-2)

    Why in the news?

    Scientists from the Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) used data from Chandrayaan-2’s Dual Frequency Synthetic Aperture Radar (DFSAR) to discover strong evidence of subsurface water-ice near the Moon’s South Pole.

    Key Findings

    • Target Location: Four “doubly shadowed craters” located inside Permanently Shadowed Regions (PSRs) at the lunar south pole.
    • Extreme Thermal Environment: These locations are permanently shielded from solar radiation, maintaining temperatures around 25 Kelvin (-248°C), acting as ideal cold traps to preserve volatiles.
    • The Prime Candidate: A 1.1 km diameter micro-crater located within the larger Faustini Crater showed the highest probability of containing clean subsurface ice.

    Geomorphological Evidence

    • Lobate-Rim Morphology: The highly-evident 1.1 km crater exhibits flow-like, lobed patterns along its rim.
    • Geological Meaning: This indicates that the initial meteoroid impact likely penetrated a layer of subsurface ice, melting it briefly to create a slurry-like, fluid ejecta pattern before re-freezing.

    About Chandrayaan-2 & DFSAR

    • Mission Context: Launched in July 2019; while its Vikram lander failed to make a soft landing, the orbiter remains fully functional in lunar orbit.
    • DFSAR Instrument: Dual Frequency Synthetic Aperture Radar.
    • Capabilities: It is the first fully polarimetric radar sent to the Moon, operating across L-band and S-band microwave frequencies to penetrate deep into the lunar regolith.

    Significance

    • In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU): Essential for future crewed bases (such as Artemis or India’s planned lunar base) to harvest local water for life support and rocket fuel production.
    • Strategic Mapping: Provides high-fidelity targeting data for future landing and excavation missions, including India’s upcoming Chandrayaan missions.

    Challenges

    • Accessing Cold Traps: Operating mechanical equipment in permanent darkness at 25 Kelvin presents immense engineering challenges.
    • Regolith Depth Overburden: The ice is subsurface, requiring specialized drilling and extraction systems rather than surface scraping.

    [2017] The terms ‘Event Horizon’, ‘Singularity’, ‘String Theory’ and ‘Standard Model’ are sometimes seen in the news in the context of

    [A] Observation and understanding of the Universe

    [B] Study of the solar and the lunar eclipses

    [C] Placing satellites in the orbit of the Earth

    [D] Origin and evolution of living organisms on the earth

  • AMCA Fighter Project

    Why in the news?

    The Ministry of Defence issued the Request for Proposal (RFP) for the indigenous Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA) programme to shortlisted private firms.

    Shortlisted Firms

    • Larsen & Toubro + Bharat Electronics Limited combine
    • Tata Advanced Systems
    • Bharat Forge + BEML consortium

    About AMCA

    • India’s indigenous fifth-generation stealth fighter aircraft
    • Developed to meet long-term requirements of the Indian Air Force
    • Being designed by the Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA)

    Key Features

    • Stealth capability
      • Materials Used:
      • Carbon composites
      • Radar-absorbent coatings containing ferrite or iron ball paint
      • Composite polymers and graphene-based materials
    • Advanced avionics includes:
      • AESA radar
      • Sensor fusion
      • Electronic warfare suites
      • Helmet-mounted displays
    • Supercruise capability (Supersonic speed in Dry Thrust)
    • Next-generation combat systems

    Programme Highlights

    • Government plans to build five prototypes
    • Selected private company will partner with ADA
    • Part of the “Make in India” and defence indigenisation push
    • Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) reportedly excluded from current process

    Consider the following statements regarding the fifth-generation fighter jet configurations of India and Russia:
    1.The Sukhoi Su-57, Russia’s operational fifth-generation stealth fighter, features supercruise capabilities but utilizes conventional round exhaust nozzles.
    2.Under proposed partnerships, Russia has offered a twin-seat variant of the Su-57, which allows a second crew member to manage manned-unmanned teaming operations with stealth drones.
    3.India’s indigenous fifth-generation Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA) is being developed and manufactured solely under the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), with zero foreign collaboration for its engines.
    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    [A] 1 and 2 only

    [B] 2 only

    [C] 1 and 3 only

    [D] 1, 2, and 3

  • New Evergreen Tree Species Discovered in Kerala

    Why in News?

    Scientists from Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute discovered a new evergreen tree species, Humboldtia nairiana, in Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuary.

    About the Species

    • Belongs to the genus Humboldtia
    • Found in riparian forests of the southern Western Ghats
    • Named in honour of plant biotechnologist G.M. Nair

    Discovery

    • First collected during a 2010 floristic survey along the Cheenikkala-Pandimotta forest trail
    • Seedlings were conserved ex-situ at the JNTBGRI Arboretum
    • Flowering and fruiting observed in 2022
    • Morphological studies confirmed it as a new species

    Distribution

    • Strictly endemic to Kerala
    • Known only from the Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve

    Conservation Status

    • Wild population is fragile and limited
    • Categorised as “Data Deficient” under IUCN criteria
    • Highlights need for habitat protection and field monitoring

    Ecological Importance

    • Adds to the biodiversity significance of the Western Ghats
    • Shows importance of riparian forest ecosystems
    • Strengthens conservation value of Agasthyamala region

    About Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve

    • Part of the Western Ghats
    • UNESCO-recognised biosphere reserve
    • Known for high endemism and rich biodiversity

    [2019] “Neyyar, Peppara and Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuaries” are part of which of the following?

    [A] Agasthyamalai biosphere reserve

    [B] Nilgiri biosphere reserve

    [C] Seshachalam Hills

    [D] Panna biosphere reserve