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GS Paper: GS3

  • Explain the role of millets for ensuring health and nutritional security in India.

    Millets (Shree Anna) are emerging as a critical pillar of India’s strategy to achieve nutrition security, dietary diversification and climate-resilient food systems

    Role of millets

    Food Security

    Drought and heat resistant

    Requires less water and fertiliser – Ideal for tribal, arid and semi-arid regions

    Rich Nutritional Profile

    High in iron, calcium, zinc, magnesium and phosphorus

    Higher protein and dietary fibre than rice and wheat

    Low glycaemic index, suitable for diabetics and obese populations

    Tackling Malnutrition & Hidden Hunger

    Addresses micronutrient deficiency among women and children (anaemia, stunting and wasting)

    Can strengthen ICDS, Mid-Day Meal and POSHAN Abhiyaan

    Versatile: Can be used in traditional and modern dishes. Eg- in biscuits, noodles, bakery

    Promotes Dietary Diversity – Reduces over-dependence on rice-wheat centric diets

    Supports Public Health

    Prevents non-communicable diseases like diabetes, hypertension and heart disease

    Strengthens immunity due to high antioxidant content

    Aligned with international commitments

    SDG-2 – Zero Hunger

    International year of millets (2023)

    Challenges

    Perceived as “poor person’s food”

    Lack of Awareness of health benefits.

    High Cost than rice/wheat – less accessible to low-income groups.

    Decline in Cultivation Area:Reduced from 35 to 15 million hectares

    PDS Challenge:Replacing 20% rice/wheat requires 10.8 million tonnes of millets.

    Way Forward

    Demand-Side Strategies

    Consumer Awareness Campaigns: Eg- Eat Right India

    Gluten-Free Exports: Eg- millet products like pasta and flour.

    Supply-Side Strategies

    Revive Traditional Practices: Eg-Barahnaja in Uttarakhand.

    Strengthen Market Linkages through FPOs and cooperatives

    Special Agribusiness Zones (SABZ)

    Enhancing millet production and consumption is key for Swasth Bharat, Samruddh Bharat

  • What is the technology being employed for electronic toll collection on highways? What are its advantages and limitations? What are the proposed changes that will make this process seamless? Would this transition carry any potential hazards?

    The total length of National Highways in India is around 1.5 Lakh km. India currently uses FASTag, based on RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) technology.

    Passive RFID tagRFID readers

    Advantages of FASTag-Based Electronic Tolling

    Reduced Congestion – Minimises stoppages, reduces queueing, and cuts travel time

    Continuous movement lowers Fuel Consumption & Emissions

    Improved Revenue Realisation- Eliminates leakages, cash handling issues, and human errors.

    Better Traffic Management due to real-time vehicle data – enhances logistics efficiency.

    Digital Financial Inclusion –Promotes cashless payments and creates digital transaction footprint

    Limitations of the Current FASTag System

    RFID Reading Errors- Faulty tags or improper placement cause delays.

    Congestion during peak hours.

    Bank downtime results in payment failures and traffic jams.

    Fraud & Misuse- Cloning of RFID tags, misuse of blacklisted/invalid tags.

    Inadequate adaption – Eg- non availability in rural areas

    Proposed Changes to Make Tolling Seamless

    Expansion of ETC lanes – 100% coverage by 2025

    ANPR (Automatic Number Plate Recognition)-Based Tolling

    GPS-based – Vehicles fitted with GPS devices and toll are charged based on the distance travelled on a highway.

    Free-Flow Tolling (FFT) Corridors – open road tolling for uninterrupted movement.

    Integration with NHAI’s ‘One Vehicle One FASTag’ Drive

    Potential Hazards in Transition to New Tolling Systems

    Privacy & Surveillance Concerns – Eg- Continuous GPS tracking and ANPR imaging

    Cybersecurity Risks- vulnerability to hacking, spoofing, or data breaches.

    ANPR systems may misread plates due to dirt, or damaged plates.

    Digital Divide – Eg- 33% rural population is digitally literate (NFHS-5)

    Technical Failures- Weather, fog, rain etc can affect ANPR accuracy and system reliability.

    Replacing toll plazas with nationwide FFT infrastructure requires massive investment.

    Addressing these concerns can ensure efficient, seamless, congestion-free highways.

  • Industrial pollution of river water is a significant environmental issue in India. Discuss the various mitigation measures to deal with this problem and also the government’s initiatives in this regard.

    River water pollution as significant environmental issue

    Pollution – Eg- 60% of untreated sewage water is released into rivers daily. (CPCB)

    Impact on health – diarrhoea, cholera, typhoid and skin infections.

    Faecal coliform in Ganga exceeds safe limits by up to 150 times

    Marine Ecology – Eg- Eutrophication, algal blooms, and dead zones

    Marine Biodiversity – Eg- Bioaccumulation in Fish

    Water crisis – Eg- 600 million Indians experience water scarcity. (NITI Aayog)

    Mitigation Measures

    On-site Effluent Treatment plants for textile and tannery clusters to treat wastewater before discharge

    Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) technologies. Eg- Mandatory in Tamil Nadu textile units.

    Install real-time effluent monitoring sensors in industries for instant alerts to CPCB/SPCBs.

    Cleaner Production Technologies – Eg- Green dyeing technologies in Surat textile units.

    Polluter-Pays principles – Eg- NGT orders on Yamuna and Musi industries.

    Industrial Zoning to restrict polluting industries near rivers. Eg- Ganga floodplain conservation zones.

    Create riparian vegetative buffers to filter runoff. Eg- Ganga floodplain conservation zones.

    Strengthen Monitoring & Surveillance – Use drones, GIS, river basin audits and citizen reporting tools.

    Government Initiatives

    Namami Gange Mission – Focus on industrial discharge reduction, and ZLD compliance. Eg- Closure of non-compliant Kanpur tanneries.

    The National Water Quality Monitoring Programme of CPCB identifies critically polluted stretches

    Environment (Protection) Act – Sets strict industry-specific limits for BOD, COD, heavy metals and toxins.

    Water Pollution Act, 1974 – Establishes the CPCB for planning and regulating environmental matters

    Yamuna Action Plan to clean the stretch of river Yamuna.

    AMRUT & SBM (Urban) Convergence – Expands sewage treatment.

    A technology driven and community driven approach is needed to ensure resilient, pollution-free rivers.

  • Examine the pattern and trend of public expenditure on social services in the post-reforms period in India. To what extent this has been in consonance with achieving the objective of inclusive growth?

    Since the 1991 reforms, India shifted to a market-oriented growth model. Public expenditure on social services increased from 5% of GDP (1990s) to 8% (2024-25)

    Trend of Public Expenditure on Social Services in the Post-Reforms Period

    Early Post-Reform Phase (1991-2005)

    Low and stagnant spending around 5% of GDP due to fiscal consolidation.

    Prioritisation of basic education – expansion of SSA, mid-day meal.

    Health expenditure remained low at 1% of GDP, high OOPE.

    Rights-Based Expansion Phase (2005-2015)

    Public expenditure rose to 6-7% of GDP.

    Introduction of major rights-based entitlements: MGNREGA (2005), RTI, RTE (2009), NFSA (2013).

    Focus on rural livelihood missions, inclusion programmes. Eg- DAY-NRLM

    Post-2015 Period

    Social sector spending increased to 8% of GDP (2021-22).

    Health spending reforms – decline in OOPE from 65% to 40% (2014-2024).

    Women Specific schemes: Eg- Ujjwala (10 crore LPG connections)

    Emphasis on social security. Eg- e-Shram, PM Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana.

    Increased focus on skill development, digital inclusion. Eg- JAM Trinity, PM-KVY

    In consonance with Inclusive Growth

    Extreme poverty fell from 16.2 % in 2011-12 to just 2.3 % in 2022-23

    MGNREGA, NFSA ensured income security and food security (67% population coverage).

    Human Capital Improvement – Life expectancy increased from 58 years (1990) to 73 years.

    Regional Inclusion – Aspirational Districts improved health, education, and infrastructure indicators in 112 lagging districts.

    Women Empowerment – Eg- 45% women representation in PRIs

    Limitations and Challenges

    Rural-Urban Divide Persists – Urban per capita income is 2x rural.

    Only 24-25% of the population has any formal social protection.

    Poor Learning Outcomes

    50% of Class 5 students cannot read Class 2 text (ASER).

    50% of graduates are employable only (India Skills Report).

    Low Public Health Spending – Still around 1.9% of GDP, below the global average of 6%.

    Inclusion-Exclusion errors and Leakages in PDS.

    High Inequality – Top 10% hold 77% of national wealth (Oxfam).

    Capability Approach (Amartya Sen) by increasing Education and health spending to 6% and 2.5% of GDP respectively is needed for ‘Sabka Saath, Sabka Vikas.’

  • What were the factors responsible for the successful implementation of land reforms in some parts of the country? Elaborate.

    Land reforms in India aimed to eliminate feudal structures, secure tenancy rights, redistribute surplus land, and modernise agrarian relations.

    Components of land reforms

    Abolition of Intermediaries

    Tenancy Reforms

    Ceiling on Land Holdings

    Land Consolidation

    Factors behind successful implementation of land reforms in some parts of the country

    Strong Political Will and Ideological Commitment to land redistribution and tenancy reforms

    Kerala – Communist government

    West Bengal – Left Front

    Decentralised and proactive bureaucracy, especially in West Bengal, where Block Development Offices played a central role in implementing Operation Barga.

    Robust Panchayati Raj Institutions ensured identification of beneficiaries, resolution of disputes, and monitoring of redistribution.

    Social Movements and Mass Mobilisation led by Kisan Sabhas, Bhoodan–Gramdan, and left-oriented peasant unions created strong grassroots pressure.

    Clear and Unambiguous Land Legislation such as J&K’s Big Landed Estates Abolition Act, 1950 – faced fewer legal loopholes

    States where landlord dominance in Governance was weaker (Kerala, West Bengal) had less resistance and fewer litigations compared to states like Bihar or UP.

    Kerala’s high literacy enabled better awareness of legal rights and reduced manipulation by landlords.

    Strong Monitoring – Periodic reviews, political oversight, and public reporting in TN ensured transparency and discouraged corruption or collusion with landowners.

    Major Challenges

    Land Reforms is ‘state subject’ – Lack of political will and uniformity in implementation

    Legal loopholes – In Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Madras there was no limit on the size of the lands that could be declared to be under the ‘personal cultivation’ of the zamindar

    Fragmented Landholdings – Average operational holding has fallen to 0.74 ha (NABARD), making consolidation challenging.

    Inadequate Institutional Capacity – Revenue departments face deficits in manpower, technology, and coordination.

    Despite legal provisions, women hold only 11-13% of operational holdings due to inheritance barriers.

    High Land Litigation – Over two-thirds of civil cases in lower courts involve land disputes

    Land reform 2.0 based on modernisation of records (DILRMP), redistribution of land and land leasing reforms is essential to realise the objective of ‘Doubling Farmers Income’.

    Environment

    Conservation Efforts

  • What are the causes of persistent high food inflation in India? Comment on the effectiveness of the monetary policy of the RBI to control this type of inflation.

  • Write a review on India’s climate commitments under the Paris Agreement (2015) and mention how these have been further strengthened in COP26 (2021). In this direction, how has the first Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) intended by India been updated in 2022?

    India’s climate commitments under the Paris Agreement (2015) reflect the principles of climate justice and CBDR-RC, balancing developmental needs with global climate responsibility.

    India’s Climate Commitments under the Paris Agreement (2015)

    Reduce emissions intensity of GDP by 33-35% from 2005 levels by 2030.

    Achieve 40% cumulative electric power capacity from non-fossil sources by 2030. Eg – Solar, wind, hydro, nuclear.

    Create an additional 2.5-3 billion tonnes of CO₂-equivalent carbon sink through afforestation and tree cover.

    Strengthen climate-resilient agriculture, disaster management and low-carbon infrastructure, while mobilising domestic and international finance.

    Strengthening Its Commitments at COP-26 (Glasgow, 2021) – India announced the Panchamrit:

    The mantra of LIFE- Lifestyle for Environment as a mass movement for Environment Conscious Lifestyles was also launched.

    Review on India’s climate commitments

    Key Achievements by 2024-25

    Emission intensity of GDP declined by 33% from 2005 levels – on track to meet the 2030 target by 2026.

    51% of total installed capacity is non-fossil (surpassed 50% NDC goal).

    Carbon Sequestration: 522 MtCO₂ sequestered through forests and land use practices (BUR-4, 2024).

    Policy Innovations:

    Green Credit Programme launched in 2023 for afforestation incentives.

    MISHTI mangrove restoration scheme covering 3,000+ hectares.

    Launch of “Ek Ped Maa Ke Naam” campaign for mass tree plantation.

    Gap Between Climate Ambition and Implementation

    Overdependence on Fossil Fuels

    Fossil fuels still account for ~73% of electricity generation (CEA, 2023).

    Fossil fuel subsidies are 8x higher than renewable subsidies

    Shortfall in Carbon Sink – Forest and tree cover 25.1% (SoFR 2023), short of the 33% goal

    India’s emissions intensity target is rated “Insufficient” by Climate Action Tracker report

    Delayed Data Reporting – India’s latest Biennial Update Report (BUR-4) covered data only up to 2020 and was submitted in late 2024.

    Delayed Implementation of Net-Zero Roadmap – sector-wise decarbonization targets are not clearly defined or enforced.

    Way Forward

    Localized Climate Risk Mapping and Micro-Zonation using GIS, satellite data, and AI.

    Nature-Based Solutions – Eg- mangrove restoration under MISHTI

    Strengthen the Green Energy Corridor for better grid integration of renewables.

    Promoting Circular Economy Eg- Enforce mandatory use of 30% recycled material in construction projects.

    Climate-Resilient Agriculture

    Scale up organic through Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY).

    Develop agroforestry to improve soil health, reduce emissions.

    Expanding Electric Mobility Ecosystem – Strengthen charging infrastructure across highways and cities (EV-charging at petrol pumps/dhabas).

    With climate risks threatening a staggering 24.7 % GDP loss by 2070, resilient development is no longer just an option-it is an economic imperative to achieve the goal of ‘Viksit Bharat’

  • Examine the factors responsible for depleting groundwater in India. What are the steps taken by the government to mitigate such depletion of groundwater?

    India’s groundwater is under severe stress due to rising demand and supply mismatch, threatening food security, rural livelihoods, and urban water supply. India is world’s largest groundwater extractor (25%).

    According to a CSIR-NGRI study, north India has been experiencing rapid groundwater depletion exceeding 1.5 cm per year, resulting in net loss of 450 km³ between 2002 and 2021.

    Factors Responsible for Depleting Groundwater in India

    Fertilizer and Pesticide Runoff from agriculture – 56% of India’s districts have nitrates beyond the safe limit of 45 mg/L in their groundwater.

    Energy Subsidies encouraging excess pumping and inefficient irrigation. Eg- in Punjab and Haryana

    Unplanned urbanisation – Concrete surfaces prevent percolation and increase run-off. Eg – Chennai has lost 85% of its wetlands (WWF)

    Population Growth – Between 2016 and 2023, India’s population increased from 1.29 billion to 1.45 billion – increase demand

    Climate change and erratic monsoons reduce natural recharge of aquifers. IMD data shows a 10% long-term decline in monsoon rainfall in northwest India.

    Poor water governance (Mihir Shah Committee report) – Eg – CGWB reports show over-exploited blocks increasing from 802 (2004) to >1,000 (2023).

    Outdated legal framework – Eg- colonial-era Indian Easements Act of 1882 grants landowners the natural right to extract unlimited groundwater beneath their property.

    Unregulated industrial discharges and untreated urban wastewater – Eg- chromium and mercury contamination in Kanpur’s industrial areas

    Unsustainable Mining Activities lead to heavy metal contamination and aquifer depletion. Eg- Uranium and fluoride seepage in Rajasthan and Karnataka

    Saline water intrusion into coastal aquifers due to over-pumping and rising sea levels.

    Jal Shakti Abhiyan (Catch the Rain) – focuses on rainwater harvesting and water conservation through the convergence of various schemes.

    AMRUT 2.0: supports rainwater harvesting in urban areas through ‘Aquifer Management Plans.’

    Atal Bhujal Yojana (2020): targets water-stressed Gram Panchayats in 80 districts across 7 states.

    Bureau of Water Use Efficiency – promotes water use efficiency in irrigation, drinking water supply, power generation, and industries.

    National Aquifer Mapping by the Central Ground Water Board for conservation planning.

    Watershed Development Component of PMKSY : focuses on rainfed and degraded lands, integrating activities like soil conservation, rainwater harvesting, and livelihoods development.

    PMKSY – Per Drop More Crop – Promotion of micro-irrigation (drip/sprinkler) with subsidies to improve water-use efficiency in agriculture.

    Way Forward

    Demand-Side Management – Use financial incentives to promote efficient water use. Eg – Punjab’s Paani Bachao, Paisa Kamao

    Supply-Side Augmentation by combining traditional and modern methods.

    RWH mandatory under Model Building Bye Laws 2016

    Khadins, check dams, percolation tanks, injection wells.

    Integrated Water Management – Strengthen community-led, data-driven groundwater governance.

    Use of technology – Eg- Biochar for Aquifer Recharge

    Adopting global best practices

    Tokyo’s Industrial Water Law and Building Water Law

    China’s irrigation quotas

    Adopting One Water Approach through National Water Commission (NWC) is essential to achieve a water-secure economy.

    Pollution

  • Explain the factors influencing the decision of the farmers on the selection of high value crops in India.

    In 2022-23, fruits and vegetables accounted for 28.3% of the Gross Value Output, surpassing cereals for the first time, and the horticulture sector contributed about 33% to the agriculture GVA.

    Factors Influencing the Selection of High-Value Crops by Farmers in India

    Policy & Institutional Factors

    Government Incentives – Schemes like MIDH, PMKSY, Operation Greens, Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture.

    Export Promotion Policies- APEDA support, agri-export zones, GI tagging

    Economic Factors

    Higher Profitability- Fruits, spices, floriculture and plantation crops offer greater income per hectare than cereals.

    Availability of Credit & Insurance – Eg-

    Agro-Climatic Factors

    Agro-Climatic Suitability – Eg- grapes in Maharashtra, apples in Himachal.

    Availability of Irrigation- Eg- Sugarcane in western UP and Maharashtra

    Technological Factors

    Availability of HYV Seeds – Eg- GM Seeds, precision farming, tissue culture

    Extension services – e-NAM price signals, Krishi Vigyan Kendras guide crop selection.

    Storage, Processing, and Value Chains – Eg- Mango pulp processing in Andhra Pradesh

    Social Factors

    Agriculture Startups – Educated rural youth adopt commercial high-value crops. Eg- Agroponics near Urban Centers

    Rising urbanisation and changing diets. Eg- organic food market growing @ CAGR 20%

    Environmental & Sustainability Factors

    Climate Resilience- Shift towards drought-resistant crops like millets, medicinal plants.

    Soil Health Consideration – Crop diversification is adopted to restore nutrient balance and reduce dependency on fertilisers.

    Water Efficiency – Crops with lower water requirement and higher value (Eg-, spices, horticulture) are preferred in water-stressed areas.

    Shift to high-value crops can be a key driver of doubling farmers’ income and sustainable agriculture.

  • Explain how the Fiscal Health Index (FHI) can be used as a tool for assessing the fiscal performance of states in India. In what way would it encourage the states to adopt prudent and sustainable fiscal policies?

    The Fiscal Health Index (FHI) initiative by NITI Aayog evaluates the fiscal health of eighteen major states through a composite index using data from the CAG, covering the Financial Year 2022-23.

    FHI as a tool to assess fiscal performance of states

    FHI uses uniform metrics-Tax Buoyancy, Debt-to-GSDP, Fiscal Deficit, Capex Share-allowing objective comparison across states.

    Multi-dimensional Evaluation – Covers five pillars and reveal structural strengths and weakness

    Measures states’ ability to mobilise resources through Own Tax Revenue (OTR) and Own Non-tax Revenue (ONTR). Eg – Higher OTR-to-GSDP ratio reflects stronger fiscal autonomy.

    Measures Quality of Expenditure – FHI differentiates between capital expenditure and revenue expenditure. Eg – States like Gujarat and Karnataka show higher capex ratios.

    Tracks Debt Sustainability – Assesses Debt-GSDP ratio, interest payment burden, and future liabilities. Eg – FHI flags high-debt states such as Punjab, Kerala, Rajasthan, and West Bengal.

    Monitors Fiscal Deficit and Compliance with FRBM Limits – Shows whether states adhere to 3% fiscal deficit glide path.

    Identifies Risk from Off-Budget Borrowings – Captures liabilities from power sector guarantees, state PSUs, and special purpose vehicles.

    Highlights Best Practices – Eg- Top states-Odisha (67.8 score), Chhattisgarh, Goa-show strong non-tax revenue, low fiscal deficits, and high capital outlays

    Role of FHI in Encouraging prudent and sustainable fiscal policies

    Promotes Fiscal Discipline – Poor rankings push states to reduce deficits and unsustainable borrowing.

    Incentivises Capital Spending – Encourages a shift from populist revenue expenditure towards productive capital outlay.

    Supports Long-Term Planning – Aligns state finances with sustainable development goals and resilience-building.

    Revenue Reforms-Stimulates states to improve tax buoyancy, and non-tax revenue mobilisation

    Drives Structural Reforms like subsidy rationalization, reduction in revenue leakages etc.

    Transparency & Accountability – Public scrutiny builds pressure on governments for fiscal prudence

    Encourages Inter-State Competition – Rankings foster a competitive spirit to achieve stronger fiscal performance.

    Strengthens Cooperative Federalism – Helps in Centre-State dialogue on shared fiscal risks and sustainability.

    Boosts Investor Confidence – Strong fiscal performance signals creditworthiness, attracting investment.

    Promotes Sustainable Borrowing Practices and enhances creditworthiness as better FHI improves a state’s credit rating.

    Challenges

    Data Gaps – CAG data of Financial Year 2022-23 used

    Off-budget borrowings not fully captured in FHI.

    Miss qualitative aspects such as governance quality, efficiency of welfare delivery etc.

    Inter-State Structural Variations are not fully captured – Eg- Resource-rich states (Odisha, Chhattisgarh) naturally perform better in non-tax revenues

    Competitive Populism reduces focus on fiscal discipline. Eg- farm loan waivers

    Weak Enforcement – FHI rankings have no binding effect on policy behaviour.

    By encouraging disciplined, sustainable, and quality spending, FHI can help realise the vision of Viksit Bharat@2047

    Industrial Policy