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Archives: Mains

  • ‘Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad)’ is transforming itself into a trade bloc from a military alliance, in present times – Discuss.

    The QUAD, comprising India, the USA, Japan, and Australia, was established in 2007 to ensure a free, open, and inclusive Indo-Pacific. In the context of the rise of ‘assertive’ China, it has undergone a strategic evolution.

    QUAD Is Not a Formal Military Alliance

    No Mutual Defence Pact – Unlike NATO, QUAD lacks Article 5-type commitment.

    Strategic Autonomy emphasis – India, especially, avoids military alliances.

    Soft-Balancing Mechanism – Focuses on shaping behavior, not confrontation.

    Diverse focus areas – USA and Japan focused on Pacific whereas India’s focus is on IOR

    Official Denial of Military Intent- QUAD is not directed against any country, but for a free and open Indo-Pacific. (PM Modi)

    QUAD’s Shift from Military to Economic-Trade Focus

    Supply Chain Resilience Initiative (SCRI, 2021) to reduce dependence on China-centric supply chains. Eg- Semiconductor collaboration and clean energy supply chains.

    Critical and Emerging Technologies – EG- QUAD working groups on 5G/6G, AI, quantum computing, biotechnology, and cybersecurity seeks to ensure secure and transparent digital trade.

    Quad Critical Minerals Initiative to collaborate on securing and diversifying critical mineral supply chains.

    Partnership for Infrastructure (PFI) promotes high-quality, sustainable, and transparent infrastructure as an alternative to China’s BRI.

    Climate and Clean Energy Cooperation – QUAD Climate Working Group focuses on green shipping, renewable technologies, and disaster resilience.

    The QUAD Vaccine Partnership (2021) aimed to produce and distribute 1 billion COVID-19 vaccines across the Indo-Pacific.

    The Blue Dot Network (BDN),, certifies infrastructure projects that meet high standards of transparency, sustainability, and quality. Seen as a counterweight to China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).

    Free and Open Indo-Pacific (FOIP) led by Japan, to ensure freedom of navigation, connectivity, and economic prosperity.

    Strategic and Military cooperation

    Joint Naval Exercises enhancing maritime interoperability and situational awareness. Eg- Malabar Exercise

    Indo-Pacific Maritime Domain Awareness (IPMDA) initiative (2022) – shares satellite data for maritime security and anti-piracy operations.

    “Quad-at-Sea Ship Observer Mission” for strengthening interoperability and knowledge-sharing to address unlawful maritime activities across the Indo-Pacific.

    Defence Technology Collaboration- Partnerships in defence manufacturing, undersea cables, and maritime surveillance technology.

    As pointed out by S. Jaishankar, “more focused Quad” will “help deliver better” and help realise rules-based international order

  • National Education Policy 2020 is in conformity with the Sustainable Development Goal-4 (2030). It intends to restructure and reorient education system in India. Critically examine the statement.

    The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, introduced after 34 years, aims to transform the Indian education system to make it equitable, inclusive, and globally competitive.

    NEP 2020 in alignment with SDG-4

    Free and Universal Education

    NEP promotes free primary and secondary education and universal literacy.

    Targets universalisation of education with 100% Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) by 2030.

    Proposes extension of Right to Education up to 18 years.

    Elimination of Discrimination in Education (SDG 4.5) – Focuses on inclusion of 2 crore out-of-school children into mainstream education.

    Equal Access to Quality Pre-primary Education (SDG 4.2)

    Affordable and Quality Vocational Training for Women (SDG 4.3)

    Qualified and Trained Teachers (SDG 4.c) – NEP proposes National Professional Standards for Teachers and regular training.

    Reorientation and Restructuring of the Indian Education System

    School Education Reforms

    5+3+3+4 model aligns learning outcomes with cognitive development stages.

    National Mission on Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (NIPUN Bharat) ensures universal literacy by Grade 3.

    Integration of vocational training from Class 6 bridges the gap between education and employability.

    Higher Education Transformation

    Vision to create a multidisciplinary and research-driven system with HECIs (Higher Education Commission of India) as a single regulator.

    Establishment of National Research Foundation (NRF) to boost innovation.

    Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) target of 50% by 2035-aligns with SDG-4’s focus on higher education accessibility.

    Technology Integration – Creation of National Educational Technology Forum (NETF) and expansion of DIKSHA platform for digital content.

    Focus on Teachers – Teacher education to become integrated and professionalized (B.Ed. as a 4-year degree).

    Challenges

    Federal Issues as Education is a concurrent subject. Eg- TN opposition to 3 language

    Funding Constraints – NEP targets 6% of GDP expenditure on education, but current allocation is around 2.9% (Union Budget 2024-25).

    Digital Divide – over 40% rural households lack internet access (NFHS-5).

    Limited industry-academia linkage hampers employability outcomes of vocational programs. (only 55% employability)

    Learning poverty – Over 70% of Class 3 students cannot read age-appropriate texts (ASER 2025)

    Teacher Shortage – Over 9 lakh vacancies (MoE, 2025); only 15% of teachers trained under NISHTHA

    Poor Infrastructure in Schools – 35% of schools lack reliable electricity and digital tools (UDISE+, 2021-22).

    Way Forward

    Establish State Curriculum Frameworks (SCFs) aligned with NEP timelines.

    Increase Public Investment: Achieve 6% of GDP target with transparent utilization and outcome monitoring.

    Digital Equity: Expand PM eVIDYA, public Wi-Fi, and digital resource centers in rural schools.

    Public-Private Partnerships: Leverage CSR, EdTech collaborations, and local institutions for inclusive access.

    Teacher Empowerment: Strengthen continuous teacher training and monitoring under PARAKH assessment framework.

    If effectively realized, NEP 2020 can transform India from a literacy-focused to a learning and innovation-oriented society, essential for achieving Viksit Bharat @2047.

  • “Micro-Finance as an anti-poverty vaccine, is aimed at asset creation and income security of the rural poor in India”. Evaluate the role of Self Help Groups in achieving the twin objectives along with empowering women in rural India.

    Microfinance aims to provide collateral-free credit and promote self-employment among the poor. In India, Self-Help Groups (SHGs) have emerged as a cornerstone of this model.

    Role of Micro-Finance and SHGs in Asset Creation

    Access to Institutional Credit – Provide collateral-free microcredit. Eg- over 1 Cr SHGs linked to banks, mobilising (NABARD, 2024).

    Productive Investment – Loans used for purchasing livestock, equipment, raw materials, leading to tangible asset formation. Eg- Kudumbashree (Kerala)

    SHGs facilitate small-scale entrepreneurship among rural poor, generating durable assets. Eg- Jeevika (Bihar) created over 1 crore women micro-entrepreneurs.

    Community Assets – Many SHG federations contribute to community-level assets such as storage units, community halls, and water facilities.

    Role of Micro-Finance and SHGs in Income Security

    Diversification of Livelihoods – Credit supports farm and non-farm enterprises, ensuring multiple income streams.

    Savings and Financial Literacy – SHGs promote thrift and savings discipline, building a safety net against economic shocks.

    Access to formal banking lowers interest burden and enhances disposable income.

    Resilience during Crises – During COVID-19, SHGs produced PPEs, masks, and ran community kitchens, ensuring income continuity and local resilience.

    Linkages with Government Schemes – Convergence with PMEGP, MUDRA, and NRLM enhances employment and financial stability.

    Role of Micro-Finance and SHGs in Empowering Women

    Economic Empowerment – SHGs provide women with control over credit, income, and assets. Eg- Lakhpati Didi Initiative (2023) aims to enable 2 crore rural women

    Social Empowerment – Collective decision-making improves confidence, literacy, and awareness on issues like health, sanitation, and domestic violence.

    Political Empowerment – SHGs act as platforms for leadership training, increasing participation in Panchayati Raj Institutions.

    Digital and Financial Inclusion – Initiatives like Bank Sakhi model and digital SHGs under PMGDISHA strengthen women’s agency in the digital economy.

    Social Capital Formation – SHGs nurture solidarity, cooperation, and local governance participation, building community-level empowerment.

    Challenges

    High Interest Rates: MFIs often charge 20-24%, burdening the poor.

    “Missing Middle” finance trap – they outgrow microcredit but cannot access medium-scale loans.

    Regional Imbalance: Concentration of SHGs in southern states (71%); weak in the north and northeast.

    Limited Market Access: Lack of integration with value chains and formal markets.

    Poor Financial Management – Irregular bookkeeping, misappropriation of funds, and lack of audit systems result in low creditworthiness.

    Patriarchal Resistance – In many regions, especially in North India, SHGs are viewed as token collectives rather than serious economic actors.

    Way Forward

    Develop Market Linkages: Integrate SHGs with ONDC, GeM, and e-NAM for fair pricing and wider market access.

    Interest Subvention and Credit Expansion: Strengthen access to MUDRA, PMEGP, and Stand-Up India for low-interest enterprise loans.

    Regional Diversification: Replicate best practices from Kudumbashree and Jeevika in less-developed regions.

    Social Empowerment Convergence: Link SHGs with Poshan Abhiyaan, PMAY-G, and Ujjwala Yojana for holistic welfare outcomes.

    Monitoring and Transparency: Use digital dashboards under DAY-NRLM to track financial performance and social outcomes.

    SHGs can transform India’s rural development landscape from beneficiary-based welfare to participatory empowerment, aligning with the vision of Atmanirbhar Bharat and inclusive growth.

  • “The incidence and intensity of poverty are more important in determining poverty based on income alone”. In this context analyse the latest United Nations Multidimensional Poverty Index Report.

    As per World Bank, Poverty is a “pronounced deprivation in well-being” which includes low incomes and the inability to acquire basic goods and services necessary for survival with dignity.

    Incidence (H): The proportion of the population who are multidimensionally poor (i.e., deprived in a set share of weighted indicators).

    Intensity (A): The average share of deprivations experienced by the multidimensionally poor.

    MPI value (H × A): Combines incidence and intensity, capturing both how many are poor and how deprived they are beyond the income dimension.

    Why Incidence and Intensity Matter More than Income Alone

    Comprehensive Understanding: Income tells how much money people have, while incidence and intensity show what capabilities they lack.

    Reveals Depth of Deprivation: Two people may have the same income, but one may suffer more due to lack of education or sanitation – intensity captures this depth.

    Targets Policy Better: Helps governments identify which dimensions (health, education, housing) need priority investment.

    Explains Poverty Despite Income Growth: India’s poverty rate has declined (2.35% extreme poverty, World Bank 2024), yet hunger, malnutrition, and illiteracy persist – showing income growth doesn’t equal welfare growth.

    Measures Human Development, Not Just Economics: Aligns with Amartya Sen’s Capability Approach – poverty is deprivation of basic freedoms and opportunities, not just low income.

    Global Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) Report 2025

    Global Poverty Statistics – 1.1 billion (18.3%) people in acute multidimensional poverty. Majority are young, rural, and living in low human development countries

    MPI Reduction Trends – Of 88 countries with comparable data, 76 saw a decline in MPI at least once

    Multidimensional Poverty in India

    Poverty fell from 55.1% (2005-2006) to 16.4% (2019-2021)

    About 415 million people exited multidimensional poverty

    Poverty and Climate Interlinkages

    32 million people displaced by climate-related shocks in 2022

    309 million poor people live in regions with three or four overlapping climate hazards

    Without strong climate action, extreme poverty could nearly double by 2050

    MPI Across Income Levels

    64.5% of global poor live in middle-income countries

    55.5% in lower-middle-income nations

    9% in upper-middle-income nations

    Common Global Deprivations

    Clean cooking fuel: 970 million deprived

    Adequate housing: 878 million deprived

    Sanitation: 830 million deprived

    Undernutrition: 635 million deprived

    Children out of school: 487 million deprived

    Limitations of the Global MPI

    Data Gaps: Many countries rely on outdated or incomplete household surveys; MPI data lags actual conditions.

    Uniform Weights and Indicators: Equal weighting (health, education, living standards) may not reflect local priorities or contexts.

    Intra-country Variations: National averages mask disparities between rural-urban areas, genders, and regions.

    No Vulnerability Capture: MPI measures current deprivation but not people at risk of falling back into poverty.

    Way Forward

    Social Determinants Approach: Integration of hunger and poverty with nutrition, sanitation (Swachh Bharat), and clean energy (Ujjwala Yojana).

    Adopt data-driven local interventions under Aspirational Districts Programme to target high-burden regions.

    Adopt Brazil’s Bolsa Família conditional cash transfer scheme

    Poverty is the worst form of violence – Mahatma Gandhi.

    A whole of government and whole of society approach is needed to achieve SDG-1

  • Which steps are required for constitutionalization of a Commission? Do you think imparting constitutionality to the National Commission for Women would ensure greater gender justice and empowerment in India? Give reasons.

    “The true measure of a democracy is how it treats its weakest members.” – Mahatma Gandhi

    The Indian state has established a network of statutory and constitutional commissions to uphold equality, dignity, and justice as envisioned in Articles 14-17, 21, and 46 of the Constitution.

    Steps Required for Constitutionalization of a Commission

    Constitutional Amendment Bill under Article 368 to insert a new article providing for the commission’s structure, powers, and functions.

    Parliamentary Approval- The bill must be passed by a special majority – i.e., a two-thirds majority of members present and voting, and a majority of the total membership of each House.

    After parliamentary passage, the bill must receive assent of the President of India.

    The amendment must be notified in the Gazette and necessary rules and procedures must be framed for operationalization.

    Would Constitutional Status to NCW Ensure Greater Gender Justice and Empowerment?

    Arguments in Favour

    Enhanced Autonomy and Authority- greater independence from executive control and political interference.

    Its reports and directives would carry greater legal and moral weight, improving government accountability.

    Funding and staffing could be constitutionally guaranteed, reducing dependence on yearly budgetary allocations.

    Symbolic Empowerment- signify strong political commitment to women’s rights and gender equality.

    Similar bodies like NCSC (Art. 338) and NCST (Art. 338A) already enjoy constitutional status; extending the same to women ensures institutional parity.

    Better Enforcement Mechanism- Constitutional backing can ensure stronger monitoring of gender-related laws (e.g., Domestic Violence Act, Sexual Harassment Act).

    Improved Coordination- With constitutional status, NCW could act as a nodal authority linking state commissions and ministries on gender issues.

    Arguments Against

    Constitutionalization won’t automatically improve outcomes unless implementation capacity and political will increase. Eg- non-binding recommendations

    Risk of politicization and executive interference in appointments like NHRC

    Existing Powers Underutilized- limited investigative capacity and enforcement follow-up.

    Risk of Bureaucratization- Constitutional status may make the body more formal.

    Institutional issues like vacancies, limited funding and delays in appointments may persist.

    Way Forward

    Create an Inter-Commission Coordination Council chaired by NHRC to avoid overlaps.

    Strengthen NCW’s investigative and enforcement powers within the existing legal framework.

    Ensure time-bound government response to NCW recommendations.

    Provide financial and staffing autonomy through statutory amendment.

    Simplify public interface through a single online grievance portal linked to all commissions.

    The 3R approach of Reform, Reorientation and Restructuring can enhance functioning of NCW as an effective Bulwark Of Democracy in India.

  • Rajya Sabha has been transformed from a ‘useless stepney tyre’ to the most useful supporting organ in past few decades. Highlight the factors as well as the areas in which this transformation could be visible.

    The Rajya Sabha, conceptualised under the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms (1918) and institutionalised by the Government of India Act, 1919, was envisioned as the Council of States-a forum of mature reflection.

    Rajya Sabha as a “Useless Stepney Tyre”

    Limited Legislative Powers – cannot initiate or amend Money Bills (Article 110)

    No Role in Government Formation – Council of Ministers is collectively responsible only to the Lok Sabha

    Joint sittings (Article 118) are dominated by Lok Sabha’s numerical majority.

    Viewed as a delaying or obstructive chamber rather than a constructive revising body.

    Cannot influence budgetary priorities or grants, diminishing its fiscal relevance.

    Factors Behind Transformation into a Useful Supporting Organ

    Rise of Coalition Politics – Need for consensus enhanced Rajya Sabha’s negotiating role.

    Federal Assertion – The rise of regional parties since the 1980s has strengthened federal politics

    Diversified Composition – Eminent professionals, academicians, and experts improved deliberation quality.

    Revitalized Committee System – Department-related committees (many chaired by RS members) improved policy scrutiny.

    Continuity and Stability – Not subject to dissolution, ensuring legislative stability and institutional memory.

    Judicial and Media Attention – Live telecast of sessions and judicial oversight improved transparency and accountability.

    Active Opposition Role – RS became a check on executive dominance during coalition and one-party phases alike.

    Areas Where Transformation is Visible

    Legislative Review and Refinement – Rajya Sabha acts as a revising chamber. Eg- Referred the GST Constitutional Amendment Bill (2014) to a Select Committee

    Federal Balance – Protects state interests against central overreach. Eg- discussed federal fiscal implications of the National Education Policy, 2020.

    Special Constitutional Powers – Can authorise creation of All-India Services (Article 312), make laws on State List (Article 249)

    Deliberative Forum – Provides in-depth, issue-based policy debates on national concerns. Eg- debates on COVID-19 management (2021)

    Accountability and Oversight – Through Question Hour, Zero Hour, and Calling Attention Motions. Eg- Rajya Sabha discussions led to clarifications on Pegasus spyware issue (2021) and farmers’ protests (2020-21).

    Voice to smaller and regional parties to represent state and sectional interests. Eg- state-specific issues such as river water disputes and fiscal devolution.

    Being a permanent chamber, it ensures institutional memory and continuity during Lok Sabha dissolutions.

    Way Forward-

    Equal representation for each state, so that large states do not dominate the proceedings. (US system)

    More debates, less disruptions- Eg – Introduce ‘whip-free debates’ for non-financial and non-confidence issues.

    Amend procedures so that laws disguised as Money Bills can be challenged and reviewed.

    NCRWC, 2002 – Called for a clear procedure for nominating eminent members under Article 80.

    Punchhi Commission (2010)– expanding the electoral college for Rajya Sabha to include panchayats and municipalities.

    As envisaged by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, RS must act as a “safety valve of federalism”, ensuring reasoned, representative, and regionally inclusive governance in India’s democracy.

  • The strength and sustenance of local institutions in India has shifted from their formative phase of ‘Functions, Functionaries and Funds’ to the contemporary stage of ‘Functionality’. Highlight the critical challenges faced by local institutions in terms of their functionality in recent times.

    73rd and 74th CAA are the embodiment of grass-root democracy and democratic decentralization in India. They are inspired by Gandhiji’s concept of “Oceanic Circles of Power” and “Swaraj”. However, they have remained Half Baked Cake (Mani Shankar Iyer Committee).

    Issues in the Formative Phase of Local Governance (3Fs)

    Functions-

    Incomplete devolution of 11th & 12th Schedule subjects

    Limited administrative authority

    Functionaries-

    Lack of training & capacity

    Bureaucratic dominance over elected reps

    Funds-

    High fiscal dependence on states/centre

    Conditional and tied grants

    Critical Challenges to Functionality of Local Institutions

    Political Challenges

    Delayed Elections- Eg- Maharashtra’s 27 Municipal Corporations functioning under administrators since 2022.

    Weak Gram Sabhas- Low participation, elite domination, and token meetings.

    With rural population falling from 75% (1990) to about 60%, national development priorities have moved toward urban governance and municipal reforms.

    Functional and Planning Challenges

    District and Metropolitan Planning Committees are largely non-functional in most states.

    Poor digital capacity- Limited use of e-Gram Swaraj and GIS-based planning.

    Administrative Challenges

    Shortage of Functionaries- Severe staff vacancies-only 0.67 secretaries per Gram Panchayat (falling to 0.33 in Uttar Pradesh).

    Parastatal Dominance reduces the role of elected bodies. Eg- Delhi Jal Board

    Accountability issues- Weak social audit mechanisms and poor grievance redressal.

    Financial Challenges

    Declining Fiscal Autonomy- Local bodies generate <1% of GDP as own-source revenue (RBI, 2022).

    Post-GST Revenue Loss- Subsumption of octroi, market, and entertainment taxes.

    Irregular constitution and poor implementation of SFC recommendations.

    Social and Governance Challenges

    Elite Capture- Local elites dominate decision-making, sidelining marginalized voices.

    Despite reservation, proxy representation (Sarpanch Pati) reduces women’s leadership effectiveness.

    Way Forward

    Empower through Performance Grants linked to service outcomes (as per 15th Finance Commission).

    Regular Capacity Building via State Institutes of Rural/Urban Development.

    Digitization of Panchayats (e-GramSwaraj) for transparency and efficiency.

    Operationalize DPCs/MPCs for integrated local planning.

    Adopting Best Practices – Eg- Kerala’s People’s Plan Campaign grants local bodies control over 40% of the state’s plan budget.

    Local bodies are the cornerstones of participatory democracy and good governance. Their functional capacity and autonomy are essential for the constitutional vision of decentralization.

  • Judicial Legislation is antithetical to the doctrine of separation of powers as envisaged in the Indian Constitution. In this context justify the filing of large number of public interest petitions praying for issuing guidelines to executive authorities.

    Doctrine of separation of powers is derived from Montesquieu’s Spirit of Laws (1748) and divides state power into Legislature, Executive, Judiciary to prevent concentration and arbitrariness.

    Judicial legislation, i.e., when courts make laws or frame policies, is generally inconsistent with this doctrine.

    Separation of Powers in India

    Art. 245-246 & 368 – Only legislature can enact/amend laws under

    Article 105, 194 – Executive cannot breach parliamentary privileges

    Art. 122, 212 – Courts cannot inquire into parliamentary/state legislature proceedings ().

    Art. 124(4) Judicial Conduct Immunity

    Judicial Independence – Security of tenure, salaries, and contempt powers.

    Judicial Legislation Antithetical to Separation of Powers

    Encroachment on Legislative Domain undermines Separation of Powers.

    Undermines Democratic Accountability – judges are unelected and not responsible for policy outcomes. Eg- Criticism of Ban on firecrackers (2017)

    Creates judicial supremacy and Judicial governance (Bhikhu Parekh) – Eg- Prakash Singh guidelines on police reforms

    Weakens Public trust in Legislature and Executive – Eg- Coal Allocation Case (2014) – Court cancelled 214 coal blocks, creating policy paralysis in the energy sector.

    Courts lack technical and administrative expertise for framing complex policy guidelines. Eg- Ban on diesel vehicles in NCR (2016)

    Judicial itself has warned against overreach in

    Aravali Golf Club v. Chander Hass (2008)- Court warned against “judicial enthusiasm turning into judicial adventurism.”

    State of Tamil Nadu v. State of Kerala (2014)- Reiterated that courts should not enter the policy-making domain.

    Justification for Filing Large Number of PILs

    Executive Inaction or Policy Vacuum Eg- Vishaka guidelines on workplace sexual harassment.

    Protection of Fundamental Rights – Eg- Hussainara Khatoon (1979) case Recognized right to speedy trial as FR under Article 21.

    Accountability and Transparency – Eg- In Vineet Narain case, SC issued directions to make CBI independent from political interference.

    Access to Justice – Liberal locus standi allows citizens to represent the poor and marginalized.

    Legislative or Administrative Delay – Eg- Navtej Johar (2018)- Decriminalized homosexuality after years of legislative inaction.

    Constitutional Mandate under Article 141 and 142 to uphold complete justice.

    Rise of Civil Society Activism – NGOs and activists use PILs to expose violations and empower citizens.Eg- M.C. Mehta Cases on environmental protection.

    Judicial Review powers under Article 13, 32, 226 to uphold Constitutional Supremacy

    Speedy Justice – timely intervention in cases affecting public interest. Eg- Olga Tellis (1985)- Protected the right to livelihood.

    Public Trust in Judiciary – Rise in PILs reflects citizens’ confidence in the judiciary as the last resort for justice.

    Issues

    Judicial Overreach- Encroachment into executive and legislative domains. Eg- SC ban on firecrackers was criticized for overreach.

    Weak Enforcement Capacity- Eg- Prakash Singh Police Reforms (2006) – Non-compliance by most states.

    Frivolous or Politically Motivated PILs increase pendency (more than 5Cr cases pending) Eg- Misuse in Election-related PILs delaying legitimate processes.

    Lack of Judicial Accountability- Eg- In-House Inquiry (Justice Ramaswamy case) exposed inadequacies in judicial discipline.

    Opaque Collegium System- criticised for lack of transparency and nepotism. Eg- uncle judge syndrome (law commission)

    Inconsistency and Selective Intervention- Uneven judicial response to similar issues affects credibility. Eg- Contrasting stances in Bail cases.

    Frequent judicial intrusion weakens separation of powers.

    Way Forward

    Institutional Restraint- Judiciary must uphold separation of powers

    Enforce strict scrutiny of PILs to prevent misuse for personal, political, or publicity motives.

    Develop a judgment-monitoring mechanism to ensure effective execution of court orders

    Promote constitutional literacy and encourage responsible use of judicial remedies by citizens.

    Dedicated PIL Cells in High Courts

    PILs represent participatory constitutionalism, ensuring that justice remains accessible, accountable, and rights-oriented.

  • Indian Constitution exhibits centralising tendencies to maintain unity and integrity of the nation. Elucidate in the perspective of the Epidemic Diseases Act, 1897; The Disaster Management Act, 2005 and recently passed Farm Acts.

    According to Paul Brass “Indian federalism is highly centralized, designed more to maintain unity than to promote autonomy.”

    Centralising Tendencies in the Indian Constitution

    Legal (Constitutional & Legislative)

    Residuary Powers (Art. 248, Entry 97 Union List) – Vested in Parliament, not States.

    Dominance of Union List (Art. 246) – 100 subjects; State List is narrower.

    Concurrent List (Art. 254) – Union law prevails in case of conflict.

    Emergency Provisions (Arts. 352, 356, 360) – Centre can override State powers.

    Parliament can legislate on State subjects under Art. 249.

    Governor’s Role (Art. 200, 201)

    Administrative

    All-India Services (Art. 312)

    Office of Governor – Agent of Centre in States

    Union’s directions to States (Arts. 256-257) – States bound to ensure compliance with Union laws.

    Deployment of Armed Forces

    Financial

    Centralised Finance – Major revenue sources (income tax, customs, excise, GST) with Union.

    Borrowing restrictions (Art. 293) – States require Centre’s consent to borrow.

    Cess and surcharges (Art. 270) not shared with States (Eg- Education Cess, Health Cess)

    GST regime – Erodes States’ fiscal autonomy.

    Centralising Tendencies in Indian Constitution

    Epidemic Diseases Act, 1897

    Public Health is a State List subject (Entry 6, List II), but the Centre can issue uniform guidelines.

    Empowers Centre to declare any disease as epidemic.

    Union can issue regulations for prevention and containment.

    Authority to restrict movement and detain individuals during epidemics.

    Centre can override conflicting State laws.

    Disaster Management Act, 2005

    Law and order and public health are primarily State subjects, but Act was used to declare nationwide lockdowns, interstate movement controls, and essential supply chains during COVID-19.

    State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMA) include central representatives.

    Union controls allocation and distribution of resources across States.

    Centre can override States’ decisions in disaster response.

    National Response Force primarily drawn from central armed forces.

    Farm Acts, 2020 (repealed in 2021)

    Though Agriculture is a State List subject, Parliament legislated under Concurrent List (Entry 33).

    Weakened State APMC mandis by allowing farmers to sell outside their jurisdiction.

    Dispute resolution mechanisms

    Gave Centre greater control over regulation of essential commodities.

    Enhanced central role in agri-marketing and e-marketing of produce.

    Analysis of Centralising Tendencies

    “Federalism is not a monolith; it is a dialogue between self-rule and shared rule.” Thus, such Acts must be exercised with consultation and cooperation.

  • ‘Indian diaspora has a decisive role to play in the politics and economy of America and European Countries’. Comment with examples.

    With over 32 million PIOs and NRIs spread across 200 countries, the Indian diaspora has become one of the most influential transnational communities in the world.

    Role of Indian Diaspora in Politics

    Political Representation: Growing Indian-origin leadership at top levels. Eg- Kamala Harris (US Vice President), Rishi Sunak (UK Prime Minister), Leo Varadkar (Irish PM)

    Legislative Influence: shape progressive policies on trade, technology, and social justice. Eg- Pramila Jayapal, Ro Khanna

    Policy Advocacy: Indian diaspora groups like USINPAC and Indiaspora influence US policy on immigration (H-1B visas), education, and bilateral cooperation.

    Community Mobilisation: Eg- Political events like ‘Howdy Modi’ and ‘Namaste Trump’

    Bridge for Strategic Partnerships by fostering dialogue and diplomacy. Eg- role in Indo-US civil nuclear deal

    Representation of Diversity: Their success promotes multiculturalism and inclusion in Western democracies

    Peacebuilding Role by facilitating intercultural dialogue and countering xenophobia. Eg- Zohran Mamdani, the newly elected mayor of New York City.

    Role of Indian Diaspora in Economy

    Corporate Leadership: Sundar Pichai (Google), Satya Nadella (Microsoft) etc drive innovation and digital transformation.

    Entrepreneurship and Start-ups: Eg- Rishi Khosla (OakNorth Bank, UK) and Kunal Nayyar (Series Investor)

    Over 3 lakh Indian IT professionals in the US and highest number of EU Blue Card holders among immigrants in Europe.

    Research and Innovation: Strong presence in STEM fields, academia, and medicine

    Philanthropy and Social Impact: contribute to educational endowments, healthcare funding, and start-up mentoring.

    Their high purchasing power and participation in services, finance, and technology contribute directly to GDP and employment growth in host countries.

    Challenges

    Security Threats – Eg- Khalistani groups in Canada

    Issues of discrimination and racism

    Brain Drain concerns

    As PM Narendra Modi noted, “The Indian diaspora is our global ambassador of talent, trust, and transformation.” Thus, sustained institutional dialogue is essential.