The Arun River, which flows across Nepal and Tibet, is eroding rock and soil in its basin, leading to the rise of Mount Everest by up to 2 mm a year.
How is Arun River making the Everest taller?
The Arun River is contributing to the rise of Mount Everest through a process called isostatic rebound. Here’s how it works:
1. River Incision:
The Arun River, which flows about 75 km from Mount Everest, is eroding large amounts of rock and soil from the surrounding landscape.
This process of erosion reduces the weight on the Earth’s crust in the Arun River basin.
A study by UCL suggests that the Arun River’s ability to carve out large amounts of rock and other materials may be due to it capturing another river or water system in Tibet.
This process is known as River Incision, where the river cuts downward into its bed, deepening its channel.
The erosion began to accelerate around 89,000 years ago when the Arun River merged with the Kosi River, removing large amounts of landmass and further reducing the weight on the region’s crust.
2. Isostatic Rebound:
When the weight of the land (due to rocks, soil, or even ice) decreases, the Earth’s crust rises to balance the change.
This is similar to how a boat rises in water when heavy cargo is removed.
The removal of landmass in the Arun River basin allows the crust underneath Mount Everest to rise.
AboutArun River
The Arun River originates in the Tibet Autonomous Region of China, where it is known as Phung Chu or Bum-chu in Tibetan.
It flows into Nepal and confluences with the Sun Koshi and Tamur River at Tribenighat, forming the Sapta Koshi River.
Tributaries:
Left tributaries: Yeru Tsanpo, Trakar-chu.
Right tributary: Barun River.
At the Nepal border, the Arun River is approximately 3,500 meters (11,500 ft) above sea level.
The river drains into the Koshi River, significantly contributing to the Sapta Koshi River system in Nepal.
It is the largest trans-Himalayan river in Nepal, playing a crucial role in supporting the region’s hydrology and ecosystems.
It provides around 37% of the total water in the Sapta Koshi system, following the Sun Koshi which contributes 44%.
Recently, the Arun-III Hydro Power Project (900 MW), which constructed with $6.95b Indian assistance, achieved a milestone with a tunnel breakthrough.
PYQ:
[2017] With reference to river Teesta, consider the following statements:
1. The source of river Teesta is the same as that of Brahmaputra but it flows through Sikkim.
2. River Rangeet originates in Sikkim and it is a tributary of river Teesta.
3. River Teesta falls into Bay of Bengal at the border of India and Bangladesh.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A recent study has found that the overexploitation of medicinal plants, is threatening the survival of swallowtail butterflies in the forest habitats of Assam’s Bodoland Territorial Region.
AboutSwallowtail Butterfly
Details
Family and Species
Family: Papilionidae
Global species: 573
Indian species: 77
Characteristics
Large size, brightly colored wings, tail-like extensions on hindwings
Strong fliers, diurnal, territorial behavior, feed on nectar
Distribution
Found in tropical and temperate regions of Asia, Africa, Americas
Habitat in India
Found in rainforests, woodlands, cultivated lands, and protected areas like the Western Ghats and Northeast India
Host Plants
Depend on specific plants like Rutaceae, Aristolochiaceae, Lauraceae, and Magnoliaceae families for larval development
Threats
Host plants, especially medicinal plants, are being overexploited in areas like the Bodoland Territorial Region
Deforestation, illegal cattle farming, agriculture, tree felling, and pesticide use
Swallowtail Conservation Action Plan (SCAP)
Purpose
To protect and conserve endangered swallowtail species and prevent their extinction
Focus Area
Focuses on habitat protection, host plant conservation, and population restoration
Swallowtail-Rich Zones
Northeastern India designated as a key zone for swallowtail conservation under SCAP
Legal Protection
12 swallowtail species in India are under federal protection;
Some species are listed under Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act.
Community Role
SCAP involves local communities in protecting host plants and preventing activities like illegal cattle grazing
PYQ:
[2016] Recently, for the first time in our country, which of the following States has declared a particular butterfly as ‘State Butterfly’?
Q). Discuss the natural resource potentials of ‘Deccan Trap’. (UPSC CSE 2022) Q). With growing energy needs should India keep on expanding its nuclear energy programme? Discuss the facts and fears associated with nuclear energy. (UPSC CSE 2018)
Q). In what ways would the ongoing US-Iran Nuclear Pact Controversy affect the national interest of India? How should India respond to its situation? (UPSC CSE 2018)
Prelims:
In the Indian context, what is the implication of ratifying the ‘Additional Protocol’ with the `International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)’? (UPSC CSE 2018)
a) The civilian nuclear reactors come under IAEA safeguards. b) The military nuclear installations come under the inspection of IAEA. c) The country will have the privilege to buy uranium from the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG). d) The country automatically becomes a member of the NSG.
Mentor’s Comment: Nuclear power is the fifth-largest source of electricity in India, following coal, gas, hydroelectricity, and wind power. As of November 2020, India has 22 nuclear reactors in operation across 8 nuclear power plants, with a total installed capacity of 7,380 MW. From 2020 to 21, nuclear power produced 43 TWh, contributing 3.11% of India’s total power generation. In today’s editorial, we will be introduced to the private investment in India’s nuclear power sector, which is expected to have significant implications for the safety and security of nuclear power plants.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
The government is negotiating with major firms, including Reliance Industries, Tata Power, Adani Power, and Vedanta, for investments of around $5.3 billion each.
This initiative aims to enhance electricity generation from non-carbon-emitting sources, aligning with India’s ambitious goal of achieving 50% non-fossil fuel-based electric generation capacity by 2030, up from 42% currently.
What are the potential benefits of private investment in nuclear energy for India’s energy security?
Increased Capacity: The government aims to add 11,000 megawatts (MW) of nuclear power generation capacity by 2040. By ramping up nuclear power, India can reduce its heavy reliance on coal, which constitutes over 50% of its installed capacity.
Financial Investment and Infrastructure Development: The initiative seeks approximately $26 billion in private investments, which will facilitate the construction and operation of new nuclear plants. This financial boost is essential for meeting ambitious clean energy targets.
Technological Advancements and Innovation: Private firms may bring innovative technologies and practices that can enhance efficiency and safety in nuclear operations. Collaborations could also foster research and development in areas such as Small Modular Reactors (SMRs), which offer potential cost savings and reduced construction times.
Alignment with National Energy Goals: The investment aligns with India’s goal to achieve 50% non-fossil fuel-based electricity generation by 2030, aiding in the transition towards cleaner energy sources.
Reduction in Carbon Emissions: Nuclear energy is a non-carbon-emitting source, which can significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions. By ramping up, India can move closer to its goal of achieving 50% non-fossil fuel-based electricity generation by 2030.
Conservation of Natural Resources: Nuclear power plants require less land per unit of electricity generated compared to solar or wind farms. This efficiency can help conserve land resources and minimize habitat disruption, particularly in densely populated regions.
How will the operational framework be structured between private companies and NPCIL?
Roles and Responsibilities: Private Companies will be responsible for making investments in nuclear plants, acquiring necessary land and water resources, and undertaking construction activities outside the reactor complex.
The rights to build, operate, and manage the nuclear stations, including fuel management, will remain with NPCIL as per existing legal provisions.
Revenue Generation: Private companies are expected to generate revenue from electricity sales once the plants are operational. This model allows private entities to benefit financially.
Hybrid Model: This model aims to accelerate nuclear capacity expansion without requiring amendments to the Atomic Energy Act of 1962, although it does require final approval from the Department of Atomic Energy.
Regulatory Compliance: The Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) will oversee safety and regulatory processes, maintaining stringent standards throughout construction and operation.
Public-Private Partnerships: There is potential for forming public-private partnerships where NPCIL or a similar government body retains majority ownership (51%) of nuclear plants.
What challenges and regulatory considerations must be addressed for successful implementation?
Safety and Environmental Concerns: There is significant public concern regarding the safety of nuclear power plants, as evidenced by protests against facilities like Kudankulam.
Increasing the frequency of inspections and enhancing emergency response protocols are recommended to ensure that safety standards are met consistently across all facilities.
Investment Conditions and Restrictions: Current policies restrict direct foreign investment in nuclear energy, allowing only limited participation in equipment manufacturing.
Infrastructure and Technological Development: The capital-intensive nature of nuclear projects requires a highly skilled workforce. Investments in training and capacity-building will be critical to ensure operational efficiency and safety.
Lack of Institutional Independence: The AERB currently lacks sufficient independence, as it operates under the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE).
Secondly, the Atomic Energy Act of 1962 restricts private sector involvement in nuclear energy, granting the government exclusive rights to produce and manage nuclear power.
Legal Uncertainties: The existence of the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act (CLNDA) framework poses risks for investors, as the government retains the right to novate contracts related to nuclear operations.
How can India address these challenges?
Legislative Reforms: The government should amend existing legislation to formally establish the AERB as an independent statutory authority, ensuring that regulatory decisions are made based on safety and technical considerations rather than political or administrative pressures.
Establishment of a New Regulatory Authority: Reviving the Nuclear Safety Regulatory Authority Bill, to issue safety policies and regulations without interference from the DAE, thereby enhancing its credibility and operational effectiveness.
Establishing a governance structure where the regulatory body operates independently would reduce conflicts of interest and improve regulatory oversight.
Enhanced Oversight Mechanisms: Increasing parliamentary oversight over the AERB’s operations can enhance accountability. Unlike executive orders, which have limited scrutiny, statutory authorities are subject to more rigorous checks, including judicial inquiries for member removals, which can bolster independence.
Adoption of Global Standards: Aligning with international best practices and standards set by organizations like the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) can help strengthen regulatory frameworks.
Recently, Jharkhand Chief Minister Hemant Soren urged Assam’s Himanta Biswa Sarma to grant ST status to tea tribes, he was also strategically countering the BJP’s campaign in election-bound Jharkhand.
Demand for Scheduled Tribe Status
Recognition of Marginalization: The Jharkhand CM has emphasized that the tea tribes in Assam, numbering around 70 lakh, are marginalized despite their significant contributions to the state’s economy.
He has formally requested Scheduled Tribe (ST) status for these communities, which are currently classified as Other Backward Classes (OBCs) in Assam, limiting their access to essential government benefits and protections associated with ST status.
ST Status: The tea tribes meet the criteria for ST status due to their distinct cultural identity, traditional way of life, and vulnerability to exploitation.
Many members of these tribes are indigenous to Jharkhand and have historical ties to Assam, having migrated there during colonial rule to work in tea plantations.
Which are the Tea Tribes in Assam?
Munda: Originating from the Chotanagpur plateau, they are one of the most prominent groups among the tea tribes in Assam.
Santhal: They have a rich cultural heritage and are known for their traditional music and dance.
Oraon: This group also hails from central India and has a strong presence in Assam’s tea gardens.
Gond: Primarily found in central India, Gonds are part of the tea tribes due to historical migration patterns.
Kurukh: This group is related to the Oraon and shares linguistic and cultural ties with them.
Bhumij: They were brought to Assam for labor in tea plantations.
The criteria for a community to be recognized as a Scheduled Tribe (ST) in India:
As established by the Lokur Committee and currently followed by the Office of the Registrar General of India (RGI), include:
Primitive Traits: Indications of a primitive lifestyle or cultural practices that are less developed compared to mainstream society.
Distinctive Culture: A unique cultural identity that differentiates the community from others, including language, traditions, and customs.
Geographical Isolation: Communities that are historically or currently isolated from the mainstream population, often residing in remote areas.
Shyness of Contact with the Community at Large: A tendency to avoid interaction with broader society, which may stem from historical marginalization.
Backwardness: Socio-economic disadvantages compared to the general population, including lower levels of education and economic development.
How do the Tea Tribes contribute to the Economy?
Major Workforce: The tea tribes form the backbone of Assam’s tea industry, which is one of the largest in the world.
Approximately 53% of India’s total tea production comes from Assam, and a significant portion of this labor force comprises tea tribe members, particularly women.
Economic Dependence: It is estimated that around 20 lakh people (2 million) in Assam are directly or indirectly dependent on the tea industry for their livelihoods.
The wages earned by tea tribe workers are a primary source of income for many families within these communities.
Cultural Heritage and Historical Injustices
Due to Cultural Displacement: The tea tribes face challenges in preserving their cultural heritage due to their classification as OBCs. This status affects their land rights and access to employment opportunities, leading to a loss of cultural identity.
Due to Socio-economic Challenges: Despite contributing significantly to Assam’s tea industry, the tea tribes suffer from poor living conditions, lack of educational facilities, and inadequate healthcare.
They often live in poverty and face systemic barriers that prevent them from accessing government programs designed for marginalized communities. This situation reflects historical injustices stemming from colonial labor practices that uprooted them from their ancestral lands.
Way forward:
Granting ST Status: Expedite the process of granting Scheduled Tribe (ST) status to the tea tribes, which would provide them with legal recognition and access to special protections, reservations, and welfare schemes aimed at uplifting marginalized communities.
Improving Living Conditions: Implement targeted government programs to improve the living conditions of tea tribe communities, focusing on access to education, healthcare, and better infrastructure in tea plantation areas.
The delayed onset of La Niña and the late retreat of the monsoon have diminished hopes that Delhi’s residents might enjoy improved air quality this winter compared to previous years.
What is Triple-dipLa- Nina?
Triple-dip La Niña refers to the rare occurrence of La Niña persisting for three consecutive years, causing prolonged cooler ocean temperatures in the Pacific and influencing global weather patterns, including stronger monsoons.
How has the triple-dip La Niña phenomenon influenced air quality in North India?
No dispersion of pollutants: The delayed onset of La Niña has led to stagnant air and calm winds, preventing the dispersion of pollutants. In previous winters, La Niña helped improve air quality with stronger winds and atmospheric circulation.
Trapped air pollutants: The slower monsoon retreat resulted in extended periods of high humidity, reduced atmospheric mixing, and trapped pollutants near the surface, contributing to deteriorated air quality.
What meteorological factors contributed to the observed anomalies in air quality?
Monsoon Retreat and Humidity: The delayed retreat of the monsoon contributes to prolonged periods of high humidity and calm winds. These conditions reduce atmospheric mixing, trapping pollutants near the surface and leading to elevated levels of PM2.5 and PM10.
Stagnant Winds: The absence of La Niña conditions results in stagnant surface winds, which hinder the dispersion of pollutants. This stagnation is particularly problematic given the regional emissions from stubble burning and other sources.
Stubble Burning: With prevailing north-north-westerly winds, stubble burning in Punjab and Haryana could significantly worsen Delhi’s air quality if it occurs at even half the intensity seen in previous years.
What implications does this have for future climate and air quality management strategies?
Need for Broader Focus: There is a growing recognition that air quality management must shift from a localized emission-centric approach to one that considers larger meteorological patterns and regional airsheds.
Policy Recommendations: Policymakers should prioritize mitigating PM2.5 emissions over PM10, as PM2.5 poses greater health risks.
Integration of Climate Factors: Future air quality strategies should integrate climate change considerations, recognizing that local emissions are only part of the equation.
Way forward:
Adopt Regional Airshed Management: Shift from a localized approach to a broader airshed strategy, accounting for meteorological patterns and regional pollution sources to improve air quality management.
Prioritize PM2.5 Mitigation and Climate Integration: Focus on reducing PM2.5 emissions, which pose higher health risks, and incorporate climate change factors into long-term air quality policies for comprehensive solutions.
In 2023, the government replaced numerous opaque science awards with the Rashtriya Vigyan Puraskar (RVP), a streamlined set with clear criteria. It aimed to address concerns about transparency by involving committees led by respected scientists.
Introduction of Rashtriya Vigyan Puraskar (RVP):
In 2023, the government replaced multiple science-related awards with the RVP, a consolidated and streamlined set of awards.
RVP introduced specific categories and clear eligibility criteria to enhance transparency and reduce opacity in the selection process.
Committees led by reputed scientists were tasked with finalizing the awardees, a measure intended to address concerns about bureaucratic interference.
Concerns Over Selection Process:
Chance of political interference: The modification of rules overnight and the omission of some scientists from the final list, despite being shortlisted by the RVP committee, created suspicion of political interference.
Omission of the critic of Govt policy: Notably, some of the omitted scientists had previously criticized government policies, leading to concerns that the awards process might be used to marginalize dissenting voices within the scientific community.
Shift in Authority:
Original Process: Initially, the RVP committee head had the authority to finalize the awardees.
Recent Change: A last-minute rule modification allowed the committee head to only “recommend” the final list to the Science Ministry, increasing the possibility of government intervention in the selection process.
Recognition Framework: The RVP awards are categorized into four main types: Vigyan Ratna for lifetime achievements, Vigyan Shri for distinguished contributions,Vigyan Yuva for young scientists, and Vigyan Team for collaborative efforts.
Impact on the Scientific Community
Concerns Over Transparency: The modification of selection criteria just before the announcement of awardees has led to suspicions that political motives might influence who receives recognition.
Notably, some scientists who were initially included in the recommended list were omitted from the final public announcement, prompting questions about whether political pressures were involved.
Exclusion of Dissenting Voices: Many excluded scientists had previously expressed dissent against government policies. This trend suggests a troubling pattern where recognition is contingent upon alignment with governmental perspectives, potentially stifling academic freedom and critical discourse within the scientific community.
Way forward:
Strengthen Transparency and Autonomy: Establish an independent, non-governmental oversight body to ensure that the selection process remains transparent and free from political interference.
Safeguard Academic Freedom: Implement safeguards to prevent exclusion based on political or ideological views, ensuring that recognition is purely merit-based.
An annular solar eclipse will be visible in parts of South America on October 2, 2023. It, however, will not be visible from India.
What is a Solar Eclipse?
A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon moves between the Earth and the Sun, blocking the Sun’s light either fully or partially, casting a shadow on certain parts of the Earth.
There are four types of solar eclipses:
Total Solar Eclipse: When the Moon completely blocks the Sun, turning the sky dark. People in the path of a total solar eclipse can witness the Sun’s corona (its outer atmosphere), which is normally hidden by the bright sunlight.
Annular Solar Eclipse: Occurs when the Moon is at or near its farthest point from Earth. The Moon does not fully cover the Sun, leaving a visible ring of fire around the Moon. This is what people in parts of South America will witness on October 2, 2023.
Partial Solar Eclipse: Happens when the Moon blocks only a part of the Sun, giving it a crescent shape. During both partial and annular eclipses, areas outside the Moon’s umbra (the darkest part of its shadow) experience a partial eclipse. It is the most common type of solar eclipse.
Hybrid Solar Eclipse: The rarest type, where the eclipse shifts between total and annular as the Moon’s shadow moves across the Earth. Some places see a total solar eclipse, while others see an annular one.
Frequency of Solar Eclipses
A solar eclipse can only occur during the new moon, when the Moon and Sun are aligned on the same side of the Earth.
A new moon happens approximately every 29.5 days because that is the time it takes for the Moon to orbit the Earth.
However, solar eclipses don’t happen every month. They occur two to five times annually, but not every new moon results in an eclipse.
Why don’t they occur every month:
The Moon’s orbit around the Earth is tilted by about 5 degrees compared to the Earth’s orbit around the Sun.
This means the Moon’s shadow usually misses the Earth.
A solar eclipse only occur when the Moon crosses specific points in its orbit, called nodes, where the Moon’s orbit intersects the plane of Earth’s orbit around the Sun.
When a new moon occurs at one of these nodes, a solar eclipse is possible.
PYQ:
[2019] On 21st June, the Sun
(a) does not set below the horizon at the Arctic Circle
(b) does not set below the horizon at Antarctic Circle
(c) shines vertically overhead at noon on the Equator
(d) shines vertically overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn
Veteran actor Mithun Chakraborty will be conferred with the 2022 Dadasaheb Phalke Award.
Mithun Chakraborty to Receive Dadasaheb Phalke Award
Mithun Chakraborty has played a wide range of roles throughout his career, from a tribal in ‘Mrigayaa’ (1976) to an action hero and a dancing star, becoming one of the most versatile actors in Indian cinema.
His performance in ‘Disco Dancer’ (1982) made him an international sensation, with the movie being a massive hit across Asia, then Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and other regions after Raj Kapoor.
He has worked in more than 350 films across multiple Indian languages, including Hindi, Bengali, Odia, Bhojpuri, Tamil, and Punjabi, demonstrating his wide-ranging influence.
Mithun has won three National Film Awards for his outstanding performances in films like ‘Mrigayaa’ (1976), ‘Tahader Katha’ (1992), and ‘Swami Vivekananda’ (1998).
He was awarded the Padma Bhushan, India’s third-highest civilian honor, in 2023, recognizing his contributions to the arts.
As the chairperson of the Film Studios Setting & Allied Mazdoor Union (FSSAMU) for three decades, Mithun has been actively involved in improving the welfare of film industry workers.
About Dadasaheb Phalke Award
Details
Organized by
Directorate of Film Festivals, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting.
Presented by the President of India.
First Presented
1969
Purpose
To honor individuals (filmmakers, actors, singers etc.) for their “great and outstanding contribution to the growth and development of Indian cinema”
Named After
Dadasaheb (Dhundiraj Govind) Phalke, “Father of Indian Cinema”.
He directed and produced India’s first full-length feature film, Raja Harishchandra, in 1913.
This landmark film is considered the starting point of the Indian cinema.
Awarded to individuals for their “great and outstanding contribution to the growth and development of Indian cinema”.
Selection Committee
A committee consisting of eminent personalities from the Indian film industry.
PYQ:
[2014] What do understand by the concept “freedom of speech and expression”? Does it cover hate speech also? Why do the films in India stand on a slightly different plane from other forms of expression? Discuss.
The 8th edition of Exercise KAZIND-2024 has commenced in Uttarakhand.
About Exercise KAZIND-2024
Exercise KAZIND is an annual joint military exercise between India and Kazakhstan.
It was first initiated as Exercise PRABAL DOSTYK in 2016 and later renamed Exercise KAZIND after the second edition.
The exercise involves Army contingents from both countries and, since 2023, also includes Air Force personnel, making it a Bi-service Exercise.
Focus Areas:
It focuses on Counter Terrorism operations in sub-conventional environments under the United Nations mandate.
Tactical drills practiced include Raid, Search and Destroy Operations, Small Team Insertion and Extraction, and Counter Unmanned Aerial System Operations.
Significance:
The exercise aims to develop skills, resilience, and coordination for joint military operations in semi-urban and urban environments.
It allows both countries to share best practices, enhance mutual cooperation, and strengthen military ties.
PYQ:
[2024] Which of the following statements about the Exercise Mitra Shakti-2023 is/ are correct?
This was a joint military exercise between India and Bangladesh.
It commenced in Aundh (Pune).
Joint response during counter-terrorism operations was a goal of this operation.
Following complaints from Overseas Citizen of India (OCI) card holders about being reclassified as “foreigners,” the Ministry of External Affairs clarified, that no changes have been made to the rules governing OCI status.
AboutOverseas Citizen of India (OCI)
Details
About
OCI scheme, introduced in August 2005, allows Persons of Indian Origin (PIOs) who were citizens of India after January 26, 1950 or were eligible for Indian citizenship on that date, to register for OCI status.
Serves as a form of dual citizenship for the Indian diaspora.
The Ministry of Home Affairs defines an OCI.
OCI Card Benefits
OCI cardholders receive a multiple-entry, life-long visa to visit India and are exempt from registering with local authorities for extended stays.
OCI card holders need permission to visit protected, restricted, or prohibited areas.
Special permits are also required for activities such as conducting research, undertaking missionary or journalistic work, and visiting areas like Jammu & Kashmir.
OCI vs NRI Rights
Under the Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA) 2003, OCI card holders are now on par with foreign nationals regarding economic, financial, and educational rights, reversing earlier parity with NRIs.
Significant Changes to OCI Rules
2005: Lifelong visas and exemption from FRRO registration
2007: Parity with NRIs for inter-country adoption and domestic airfare
2009: Parity with NRIs for entry fees to monuments and professions like doctors and architects
Eligibility Restrictions
Individuals with parents or grandparents from Pakistan or Bangladesh cannot apply for an OCI card.
Foreign military personnel (retired or active) are also not eligible.
Spouse Eligibility
Spouses of Indian citizens or OCI card holders, whose marriage has been registered for at least two years, can apply for an OCI card.
OCI Card Restrictions
OCI card holders cannot vote, hold constitutional positions, or be elected as a members of Parliament or Legislative Assembly.
They are also restricted from holding government employment in India.
PYQ:
[2021] With reference to India, consider the following statements: (2021)
There is only one citizenship and one domicile.
A citizen by birth only can become the Head of State.
A foreigner once granted citizenship cannot be deprived of it under any circumstances.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
