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  • [18th July 2024] The Hindu Op-ed: Intergenerational equity as tax devolution criterion

    [18th July 2024] The Hindu Op-ed: Intergenerational equity as tax devolution criterion

    PYQ Relevance:

    Mains: 
    Q.1) How have the recommendations of the 14th Finance Commission of India enabled the States to improve their fiscal position? (UPSC IAS/2021) 
    Q.2)  How is the Finance Commission of India constituted? What do you know about the terms of reference of the recently constituted Finance Commission? Discuss.  (UPSC IAS/2018) 

    Prelims:
    With reference to the Finance Commission of India, which of the following statements is correct? (UPSC IAS/2011) 
    (a) It encourages the inflow of foreign capital for infrastructure development
    (b) It facilitates the proper distribution of finances among the Public Sector Undertakings
    (c) It ensures transparency in financial administration
    (d) None of the statements (a), (b). and (c). given above is correct in this context.

    Note4Students: 

    Prelims: Powers and Functions of Finance Commission;

    Mains: Challenges to Fiscal Federalism; 

    Mentor comments: Fiscal devolution (Horizontal and Vertical), the transfer of fiscal powers and resources from the central government to state/local governments, is a crucial aspect of fiscal federalism. Fiscal devolution increases the financial resources and decision-making powers of state governments, allowing them to better address local needs and priorities. This strengthens fiscal federalism by empowering states to be more fiscally responsible and accountable to their citizens. It also helps in fostering competition among states to attract investments and provide better public services, driving overall economic development. This eventually contributes to macroeconomic stability. Further, the Fiscal devolution to local bodies (Municipalities and Panchayats) by State FC empowers them to undertake development activities and provide public services more efficiently.  Hence it is a key pillar of cooperative and competitive fiscal federalism, promoting fiscal autonomy, equitable development, and overall macroeconomic stability in a federal polity like India.

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News? 

    The fiscal devolution between the Union and States, as well as the distribution formula among states, is an ongoing debate with concerns about maintaining the balance of fiscal federalism and equitable development across generations within states.

    The Finance Commission (FC) is responsible for recommending the distribution of net tax proceeds between the Union and the States every five years:
    • The 15th FC recommended a 41% share of central taxes for the states, which is lower than the 42% share recommended by the 14th FC.
    • The actual share of states in central taxes has been lower than the FC recommendations due to the increasing share of cess and surcharges levied by the Union government, which are not part of the divisible pool.
    • The horizontal distribution formula among states prioritizes equity (income gap, population, area, forest cover) over efficiency (demographic performance, tax effort). This has led to concerns about accentuating intergenerational inequity within states.

    Intergenerational fiscal equity

    • It refers to a situation where every generation pays for the public services it receives and does not burden the future generation through borrowings. It is also the principle of providing equal opportunities and outcomes to every generation.
    • There are only two ways for any government to raise its revenue:
      • Tax: If, in a period, the tax revenue equals the current expenditure of the government, then the current taxpayers pay for the public services they receive.
      • Borrowing: If the government finances the current expenditure through borrowing, it means the future generation is going to pay higher taxes to repay this borrowing and interest. In other words, borrowing to meet the current expenditure of the government amounts to intergenerational inequity.
    According to the Ricardian Equivalence Theory, whenever the government depends on borrowing to finance its current expenditure, households react through higher savings and thus enable the future generation to pay higher taxes as well as keep aggregate demand in the economy constant over different periods.
    • Presently, the current generations worldwide pay taxes less than the value of the current public services they receive, and thus it saves too. Whereas in our Indian present federal situation, this is not the case.
      • Condition of Developed States: The households in developed States pay taxes that are not entirely used within the specific States, thus compelling such States to borrow more or curtail current expenditures.
      • Condition of Developing States: The households in developing States pay taxes much less than the value of current expenditure and fill the gap by receiving higher financial transfers from the Union government.

    Issues with Intragenerational Equity:

    • Low-income States (Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Odisha, and Jharkhand) finance a smaller portion of their revenue expenditure with their own tax revenue and also receive larger amounts of Union financial transfers.
      • The own tax revenue (collection from GST, VAT Excise, Stamp Duty, and Motor Vehicle Tax) financed up to 59.3% of revenue expenditure in high-income States, while in low-income States, their own tax revenue was financed only 35.9%.
    • High-income States (Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Haryana) finance a substantial portion of their revenue expenditure with their own tax revenue but receive too few Union financial transfers.
      • The Revenue Expenditure to GSDP (Gross State Domestic Product) ratio for high-income States was 10.9%, which is lower than the similar ratio of 18.3% for low-income States.
      • Nearly 57.7% of revenue expenditure in low-income States was financed by Union financial transfers, and only 27.6% of revenue expenditure was financed by Union financial transfers in high-income States.
    • Government can also deduce that the high-income States had to incur a deficit of 13.1%, and the low-income States ended up with a deficit of only 6.4% of revenue expenditure.

    Thus, the high-income States raise higher amounts of their tax revenue and curtail their revenue expenditure, yet incur higher deficits because of lower Union financial transfers compared to low-income States.

    Address the Impacts and Conflicting Equities

    • Issue with Indicators Used by FC: The indicators presently used by the FC are per capita income, population, and area to reflect differences in demand for public services and revenue availability among states which carries a larger weight to assure equitable distribution of Union transfers.
      • Efficiency indicators like tax effort and fiscal discipline have smaller weightage to reward the fiscal efficiency of states.
    • Impact of Lower Transfers: States have Fiscal Responsibility Acts restricting deficit and debt but the reduced Union transfers compel some states to breach these legal limits.
      • Larger weight to fiscal indicators and incentivizing tax effort and expenditure efficiency through higher transfers can ensure intergenerational fiscal equity and sustainable debt management by states

    Way Forward:

    • Balancing intragenerational and intergenerational equity is crucial to balancing equity and efficiency in the tax devolution formula.
      • Incentivize tax effort and expenditure efficiency through higher Union transfers
    • The Finance Commission (FC) should assign larger weight to fiscal indicators.
  • [17th July 2024] The Hindu Op-ed: Centralised examinations have not aced the test

    [17th July 2024] The Hindu Op-ed: Centralised examinations have not aced the test

    PYQ Relevance:

    Mains: 

    Q1 National Education Policy 2020 conforms with the Sustainable Development Goal-4 (2030). It intends to restructure and reorient the education system in India. Critically examine the statement. (UPSC IAS/2020) 

    Q2  The quality of higher education in India requires major improvement to make it internationally competitive. Do you think that the entry of foreign educational institutions would help improve the quality of technical and higher education in the country? Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2015) 

    Note4Students: 

    Prelims:  About NTA and its function

    Mains: Challenges and issues related to NTA

    Mentor comments: The National Testing Agency (NTA) has faced widespread protests from students across India over alleged irregularities in exams like NEET-UG, CSIR-UGC NET, and UGC-NET, including suspected question paper leaks and technical glitches. Students have demanded a re-examination of affected tests, a thorough investigation into the irregularities, and the scrapping of the NTA due to its lack of transparency and accountability. Prominent student organizations like ABVP, NSUI, AISA, and SFI have organized nationwide strikes, demonstrations, and protests outside the Ministry of Education headquarters, with some calling for the Education Minister’s resignation.

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the news? 

    The NTA faced severe criticism after awarding grace marks to 1,563 candidates in the NEET-UG exam due to delays at seven examination centres. This led to a record 67 candidates sharing the top rank, prompting allegations of inflated marks

    About the National Testing Agency (NTA):

    • The National Testing Agency (NTA) was established by the Government of India in 2017 to conduct entrance examinations for professional courses.
    • It aimed to conduct Multiple Choice Question (MCQ)-type examinations electronically, utilizing specialists in the science of testing to set up question banks and evaluator frameworks.
    • NTA conducts over 15 entrance exams, including the Common University Entrance Test (CUET), NEET-UG, and various UGC courses.
    • It operates as a lean organization with most work outsourced and is headed by a chairman and a chief executive officer (typically an IAS officer).

    Challenges and issues related to NTA: 

    • Lack of Transparency and Accountability: 
      • The NTA has been embroiled in allegations of irregularities in the conduct of exams like NEET-UG, including suspected question paper leaks, distribution of wrong question papers, and technical glitches.
      • This has significantly dented the credibility and trust in the NTA among students, parents, and educators.
    • Operational and Administrative Challenges: The centralized nature of the NTA has created operational and administrative challenges, with many of the empanelled test centers lacking proper infrastructure like CCTV monitoring.
      • The award of grace marks to candidates and the unusual spike in the number of students securing full marks in exams like NEET have raised questions about the procedures adopted by the NTA.
      • The continued use of traditional pen-and-paper mode exams creates multiple opportunities for malpractice, from the setting and printing of the paper to its distribution and delivery.

    Steps taken by the Government: 

    • Institutional Initiatives:
      • The government has appointed a reform Dr. K. Radhakrishnan committee, to recommend reforms to enhance the exam processes of the NTA.
      • Govt. also appointed Pradeep Singh Kharola as the new chief of NTA. 
      • The education ministry has sought a detailed report from the Bihar Police’s Economic Offences Unit regarding the purported irregularities in the NEET (UG) 2024 exam held in Patna.
    • Strengthening Security and Processes:
      • The Govt. has recognized the need to strengthen the NTA’s security infrastructure, adopt advanced technologies, and enhance the overall efficiency and transparency of its examination processes.
      • In response to the controversy over the award of grace marks, the NTA decided to retract the grace marks given to 1,563 students and offered them the option to take a re-test.

    Impact on the School System due to entrance exam:

    • Rise of Coaching Centers:
      • The prominence of national-level entrance exams has shifted the focus from regular school education to specialized coaching centers designed to prepare students specifically for these exams.
      • The proliferation of coaching centres has led to the emergence of ‘dummy’ schools where students are enrolled only to meet regulatory requirements but primarily attend coaching classes.
    • Neglect of Holistic Education: The emphasis on entrance exams has led to the neglect of holistic education that schools traditionally provide, focusing instead on rote learning and exam-specific strategies.
    • Declining Standards: The school system’s academic standards are declining as students and educators prioritize entrance exam preparation over comprehensive education.
      • Students are missing out on foundational knowledge and skills that are critical for their overall development and future academic success.

    Way forward: 

    • Holistic Evaluation:
      • Reinstate the practice of incorporating school-leaving marks into the final entrance exam scores to ensure a more holistic evaluation of students.
      • Emphasize the importance of school education by making it a significant component of the entrance examination process.
    • Comprehensive Curriculum:
      • Enhance the school curriculum to ensure it provides a strong foundation in various subjects, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills.
      • Encourage a balanced approach to education that values both school learning and entrance exam preparation.

  • ECI’s technical SOP for EVM verification is out: why verify and how? 

    Why in the News?

    The ECI released a technical Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) on July 16 for verifying burnt memory in EVMs and VVPATs, following an April Supreme Court verdict.

    What is the Burnt Memory of EVM?

    • “Burnt memory” in Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) refers to the firmware or software program permanently written onto the microcontroller’s memory during the manufacturing process.
    • This memory controls the EVM’s operations, and “burnt” implies it is fixed and cannot be altered or reprogrammed easily.

    What was the case before the Supreme Court, and what did it order?  

    Case Before the Supreme Court:

    • The Supreme Court was hearing a challenge to the reliability of Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs). The judgment was delivered on April 26, 2024, during the Lok Sabha election.
    • The Supreme Court upheld the EVM-VVPAT system and rejected the plea for a return to paper ballots and for 100% counting of VVPAT slips.
    • The court directed the Election Commission of India (ECI) to allow second and third-placed candidates to seek verification of burnt memories of EVMs and VVPATs of up to 5% of machines in an Assembly constituency or an Assembly segment of a Lok Sabha constituency.

    Court’s Orders:

    • The burnt memory/microcontroller in 5% of the EVMs (control unit, ballot unit, and VVPAT) per assembly constituency/assembly segment of a parliamentary constituency shall be checked and verified for tampering or modification.
    • Candidates who are at Sl. No. 2 or Sl. No. 3 behind the highest polled candidate can request verification in writing.
    • Candidates or their representatives have the option to be present during the verification process. Requests for verification must be made within seven days of the declaration of the result.
    • The actual cost or expenses for the verification will be notified by the ECI, and the candidate requesting the verification will bear the expenses. These expenses will be refunded if tampering is found.

    What is the process to be followed for the verification of EVMs and VVPATs? 

    Technical SOP by ECI:

    • Mock Poll: A mock poll of up to 1,400 votes per machine will be conducted in the presence of candidates or their representatives.
    • Result Comparison: If the results of the machines and VVPAT slips match, it will be concluded that the burnt memory or microcontrollers have not been tampered with.
    • Selection of Machines: Candidates can select the polling stations, EVMs, BUs, CUs, and VVPATs they want checked.
    • Verification Team: Trained engineers from the EVM manufacturers, Bharat Electronics Ltd (BEL) and Electronics Corporation of India Ltd (ECIL) will perform the checks.
    • Technical Methods: Various technical methods will be used to verify the fidelity of firmware burnt into a microcontroller through a public process.

    When will this process of checking start?

    • Preliminary Step: Verification will commence after it is confirmed by the High Courts of the respective states that no Election Petitions have been filed regarding the constituencies in question.
    • Election Petitions: Petitions challenging the election outcome can be filed within 45 days of the results being declared. Since the results were announced on June 4, petitions can be filed until July 19.
    • Applications Received: Eleven applications cover 118 polling stations or sets of EVMs and VVPATs. Applications have been received from candidates from BJP, Congress, DMDK, and YSRCP.

    Way forward: 

    • Enhanced Transparency and Confidence: Conduct regular and public verification processes of EVMs and VVPATs with involvement from political parties and independent observers to build public trust and confidence in the electoral system.
    • Technological Upgradation and Training: Invest in upgrading EVM technology and provide comprehensive training for election officials and engineers to ensure efficient and accurate verification and operation of voting machines.

  • ‘Telecom sector awaits next frontier in communications via policy reform’  

    Why in the News?

    The telecom industry has proposed several policy recommendations to the Ministry of Communications that are essential to realize the Government’s vision of promoting digital empowerment and inclusivity.

    Present global status of the Indian market: 

    • Digital Connectivity Advancements: India has made significant strides in digital connectivity, positioning itself as the third-largest digitized country globally, following the USA and China.
    • Telecommunications Infrastructure: The telecommunications infrastructure in India serves as a cornerstone for digital transformation, facilitating connectivity across various devices and applications, thereby contributing to higher standards of living and economic growth.
    • Policy Reforms: Ambitious policy reforms have been implemented to elevate India’s status as a leading digital economy. These reforms aim at fostering digital empowerment and inclusivity, crucial for sustaining growth and competitiveness in the global market.

    Recommendations submitted by the telecom industry   

    • Reduction in Levy and Tax Burden:
      • Abolishment of the USOF (Universal Service Obligation Fund) levy because of  imposes a burden on telecom service providers (TSPs), diverting resources that could be invested in newer technologies such as 5G and network upgrades
        • USOF is the pool of funds generated by 5% Universal Service Levy that is charged upon all the telecom fund operators on their Adjusted Gross Revenue (AGR).
      • Reduction of the license fee from 3% to 1%.
      • Clarity in the definition of Gross Revenue (GR) to exclude non-telecom activities from tax calculations.
    • Exemption and Duty Reductions:
      • Exemption of Service Tax on additional Adjusted Gross Revenue (AGR) liabilities is demanded because it is crucial for the recovery of the industry’s financial health and ensuring efficient 5G rollout.
        • AGR has resulted in massive dues of over ₹1.5 lakh crore that telecom companies like Bharti Airtel, Vodafone Idea, and others have to pay.
      • Reduction of Customs Duty to zero for telecom manufacturing, with gradual increases for 4G and 5G products.
      • Urgency in renewing Customs Duty exemptions for submarine cable vessels to prevent future cost increases.
    • Spectrum Allocation:
      • Prioritization of 6 GHz spectrum for 5G deployment in India.
      • Strategic planning of 6 GHz spectrum for future 6G technologies, aiming at enhancing network quality, coverage, and supporting a range of advanced applications like telemedicine and smart cities.
    • Telecommunications Act 2023:
      • Introduction of the Telecommunications Act 2023, addressing critical issues such as Right of Way (RoW) for telecom infrastructure.
      • Standardization of RoW rules across states, simplification of licensing processes, and delinking telecom infrastructure from property taxes to facilitate faster deployment of 5G services.
    • Implementation of Reforms:
      • Emphasis on the swift implementation of regulatory reforms to minimize bureaucratic delays and operational hurdles.
      • Creation of a conducive environment for telecom investments by ensuring clarity and uniformity in RoW regulations, thereby improving the Ease of Doing Business (EoDB) in the sector.

    Conclusion: The Government should prioritize the swift implementation of proposed policy reforms, including the reduction of levies and taxes, clarity in revenue definitions, and spectrum allocation for 5G and future 6G technologies. Timely execution will bolster investor confidence, accelerate infrastructure development, and enhance digital connectivity nationwide.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Cyber warfare is considered by some defence analysts to be a larger threat than even Al Qaeda or terrorism. What do you understand by Cyberwarfare? Outline the cyber threats which India is vulnerable to and bring out the state of the country’s preparedness to deal with the same. (2013)

  • As thoughts become digitised, who will protect our Neurorights? 

    Why in the News?

    Many researchers anticipate the imminent development of wearable EEGs capable of enhancing human cognitive functions directly.

    • Elon Musk’s Neuralink has also sparked optimism by exploring brain-computer interfaces to potentially restore lost functions in physically impaired individuals.
    • Neuralink is a company founded by Elon Musk in 2016 that’s developing a brain-computer interface called “the Link,” which is a surgically embedded neural-chip implant designed to decode and stimulate brain activity.
    • Neuralink implanted its first device in a patient’s brain in January 2024.

    What is EEG?

    EEGs refer to electroencephalograms, which are devices used to record electrical activity in the brain. These devices are valuable in neuroscience for monitoring brain functions and diagnosing various neurological conditions.

    What is Neuroscience?

    Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system, which includes the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. It is a multidisciplinary field that combines various approaches to understand the structure, function, and disorders of the nervous system.

    What is Neuro data?

    Neuro-data refers to data related to the nervous system, particularly the brain. It encompasses various types of data collected through neuroscience research and clinical studies.

    Significance of Neurodata:

    • Medical Advancements: It has the potential to provide precise diagnosis and personalized treatment of neurological disorders. It facilitates the continuous monitoring of brain health and early detection of abnormalities.
    • Technological Innovation: It supports the development of brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) and wearable neurodevices. It would enhance rehabilitation options for individuals with neurological impairments.
    • Research and Insights: It can provide data for studying brain functions, cognition, and behaviour. It fuels advancements in neuroscience, leading to new therapies and interventions.

    What are your neurorights?

    • Right to Mental Privacy: Individuals have the right to privacy concerning their neural activities and cognitive processes. This includes protection against unauthorized access to neural data and ensuring confidentiality in the use of neurotechnologies.
    • Right to Neurological Integrity: Individuals possess the right to autonomy over their neurological functions and activities. This entails the freedom from undue manipulation or coercion through neurotechnological interventions, ensuring that such technologies respect and preserve individuals’ neurological integrity.

    What is Neuroethics?

    Neuroethics is a field that addresses the ethical, legal, and social implications of advancements in neuroscience and neurotechnologies. It aims to ensure that the development and application of these technologies benefit humanity while minimising harm.

     

    The digitisation of neuro-data raises great opportunities as well as concerns  

    • Opportunities:

      • Enhanced Cognitive Assistance: Wearable EEGs and other neurotech devices can directly aid cognitive functions. For example, Brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) like Neuralink could help physically impaired individuals restore lost functions.
      • Medical Advancements: It provides Real-time health monitoring and personalized healthcare options. For example, Improved diagnosis and treatment of brain disorders through detailed neuro-data.
      • Commercial and Research Value: It provides Valuable insights for neuromarketing to understand and influence consumer behaviour.
      • Integration with Daily Life: It can be used in daily life by using Smartwatches and apps that can track physiological activities and emotions, integrating neurotech into everyday activities.

    • Concerns:

      • Surveillance Risks: It has a potential misuse of neuro data for monitoring by employers, governments, and private companies.
      • Privacy and Security: It may threaten mental privacy and autonomy with the collection and analysis of sensitive neuro data.
      • Ethical and Legal Challenges: It has the potential for ethical dilemmas in mental privacy, consent, and the use of neurotech in various societal contexts.
      • Impact on Individual Rights: The right to think freely and safeguard one’s mental state from monitoring could be compromised. For example, Digitized health data’s commercial value could lead to exploitation and loss of personal control.

    Initiatives related to neuroethics: 

    • Institutional Efforts:
      • U.S. Presidential Commission on Bioethics: In 2015, it published the ‘Gray Matters’ report, addressing cognitive enhancement, consent capacity, and the legal implications of neuroscience.
    • Global Initiatives:
      • OECD Recommendations: In 2019, the OECD recommended principles such as safeguarding personal brain data and monitoring potential misuse of neurotechnologies.
      • UNESCO’s Concerns: In 2022, UNESCO highlighted issues related to human identity, freedom of thought, and privacy, emphasizing the risks of unauthorized access to neural data.
    • Research and Training:
      • Institute of Neuroethics: In 2023, researchers emphasized the need for proactive consideration of the implications of scientific advances and incorporating ethics into research training.

    Conclusion: Governments and international bodies should collaborate to create robust regulations that govern the collection, use, and sharing of neuro data. These regulations should ensure that neurotechnologies are used ethically, protecting mental privacy, consent, and individual rights.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q Discuss the advantages and security implications of cloud hosting of servers vis-a-vis in-house machine-based hosting for government business. (2015)

  • Trying juveniles as adults is not the answer  

    Why in the News?

    In May, a speeding car, allegedly driven by a teenager, resulted in the deaths of two young techies in Pune.

    • The Juvenile Justice Board (JJB) initially granted the minor bail on conditions like writing a 300-word essay on road safety. This decision sparked public outrage and criticism from the Maharashtra Deputy CM.
    • Later, the JJB canceled the minor’s bail and sent him to an observation home, which was again challenged in the Bombay High Court.
    • The Bombay High Court eventually ordered the release of the minor, stating that the JJB’s remand order was illegal and that the minor should be in the care of his paternal aunt as per the Juvenile Justice Act.

    What were the provisions led under the previous Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act of 2015?

    Definitions:
    • Section 2 defines a “child” as a person below the age of 18 years.
    • Section 2(13) defines “children in conflict with law” as those who are alleged or found to have committed an offence.
    • Section 2(14) defines “children in need of care and protection” as those meeting certain criteria, such as being homeless, engaged in illegal labour, victims of abuse, etc.
    Juvenile Justice Boards (JJBs):
    • Section 4 mandates the establishment of Juvenile Justice Boards in each district.
    • Section 4(2) states that the JJBs shall comprise a Metropolitan Magistrate or a Judicial Magistrate of the First Class and two social workers.
    • Section 8 outlines the powers and functions of the JJBs in handling cases related to children in conflict with the law.
    Child Welfare Committees (CWCs):
    • Section 27 requires the establishment of Child Welfare Committees in each district.
    • Section 28 defines the composition and functions of the CWCs in the care, protection, treatment, development, and rehabilitation of children in need of care and protection.
    Adoption Procedures:
    • Chapter VIII (Sections 56-65) provides a comprehensive adoption regime, including the establishment of the Central Adoption Resource Authority (CARA).
    • Sections 56-65 outline the adoption procedures and ensure transparency and accountability.
    Rehabilitation and Social Reintegration: Section 39 emphasizes the rehabilitation and social reintegration of children in conflict with the law through various measures, including counseling, education, skill development, and community-based programs.
    Preliminary Assessment for Heinous Offences: Section 15 mandates a preliminary assessment by the JJB to determine if a child in the age group of 16-18 years accused of committing a heinous offence should be tried as an adult.
    Children’s Court: Section 19 provides for the establishment of a Children’s Court to try children in the age group of 16-18 years accused of committing heinous offences.
    Mandatory Reporting: Section 19(1) makes it mandatory to report the presence of a child in need of care and protection to the authorities, and failure to do so is a punishable offence.
    Registration of Child Care Institutions: Section 41 requires all childcare institutions, whether run by the government or NGOs, to be registered within six months of the commencement of the Act.
    Penalties: Chapter XI (Sections 75-85) prescribes penalties for various offences, including the non-registration of childcare institutions and the sale and procurement of children.

    Amendment in 2021 

    • Empowering District Magistrates: The amendment authorized District Magistrates, including Additional District Magistrates, to issue adoption orders under Section 61 to ensure speedy disposal of cases and enhance accountability.
    • Strengthening Child Welfare Committees (CWCs): The eligibility parameters for the appointment of CWC members were redefined, and criteria for disqualification were introduced under Section 28 to ensure that only competent and capable individuals were appointed.
    • Categorization of Offences: The amendment categorized offences where the maximum sentence is more than 7 years imprisonment but no minimum sentence is prescribed or the minimum sentence is less than 7 years as “serious offences” under Section 2(54).
    • Addressing Implementation Challenges: The amendment introduced changes to remove difficulties arising in the interpretation of various provisions of the Act and to clarify the scope of certain provisions.

    Need for Accountability:

    • Promoting Justice and Fairness: Accountability ensures that juvenile offenders are held responsible for their actions in a manner that aligns with principles of justice and fairness.
    • Preventing Recidivism and Ensuring Rehabilitation: Holding juvenile offenders accountable helps in addressing underlying issues that contribute to their offending behaviour.
    • Maintaining Public Confidence and Trust: Accountability in the juvenile justice system enhances public confidence in the legal process and ensures transparency in decision-making.

    Conclusion: Implement comprehensive rehabilitation programs that are tailored to the individual needs of juvenile offenders, focusing on mental health support, educational opportunities, vocational training, and family reintegration.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q Examine the main provisions of the National Child Policy and throw light on the status of its implementation. (2016)

  • Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA)

    Why in the News?

    • The origin of life on Earth remains one of the world’s most enduring mysteries.
      • Numerous competing theories exist, but none have conclusive proof.
      • A significant concept in understanding the origin of life is the Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA).

    What is the Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA)?

    • Researchers believe that all life forms— the Bacteria, the Archaea, and the Eukarya —originated from a single cell known as the last universal common ancestor (LUCA).
    • It is suggested to have been a “cellular organism that had a lipid bilayer and used DNA, RNA, and protein“.
    • There is a lack of clarity about direct fossil evidence of LUCA.
    • However, the shared features of modern genomes provide significant insights into this ancient ancestor.

    LUCA and the Molecular Clock:  

    • The molecular clock theory was proposed by molecular biologist Emile Zuckerkandl and biochemist Linus Pauling in the 1960s and later refined by biologist Motoo Kimura.
    • The theory allows scientists to reconstruct the evolutionary timeline.
    • According to the theory, the rate at which mutations are added or removed from a population’s genome is proportional to the rate of acquiring new mutations, which is constant.
    • By calibrating the molecular clock with known events, such as the emergence of the first mammals or the age of certain fossils, researchers can estimate the time between evolutionary events.

    Recent Research Findings on LUCA’s Age and Genome

    • Researchers at the University of Bristol and Exeter estimate that LUCA originated around 4.2 billion years ago, nearly 1 billion years earlier than previously thought. 
      • They obtained evidence from the 3.3 km deep Candelabra’ hydrothermal vent on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
    • LUCA had a small genome of about 2.5 million bases encoding 2,600 proteins, sufficient for survival in a unique niche.
    • Its metabolites may have created a secondary ecosystem for other microbes.
    • The presence of immunity genes in LUCA suggests it had to defend against viruses.

    Evidence Verification using Miller-Urey Experiment

    • In 1952, Stanley Miller and Harold Urey conducted an experiment at the University of Chicago, simulating lightning strikes on a mixture of methane, ammonia, and water, which resulted in the formation of amino acids.
    • This demonstrated that complex organic compounds could arise from inorganic compounds under the right conditions.

    Which is older: LUCA or fossils?

    • LUCA’s estimated origin at 4.2 billion years predates the earliest fossil records by almost 1 billion years.
    • Fossil records from the Pilbara Craton in Australia suggest life emerged around 3.4 billion years ago, but the study pushes this date back.

    Alternative Theories: 

    (1) Extraterrestrial Origin

    • Another prominent theory suggests that meteorites from space could have brought the building blocks of life to Earth.
    • This theory is supported by various discoveries.
    • In August 2019, French and Italian scientists reported finding 3.3 billion-year-old extraterrestrial organic material.
    • Japan’s Hayabusa 2 mission to the asteroid Ryugu detected more than 20 amino acids, further supporting the possibility of an extraterrestrial origin for the building blocks of life.

    (2) Oparin-Haldane Hypothesis

    • In the 1920s, Alexander Oparin and J.B.S. Haldane independently proposed theories regarding the origin of life.
    • They suggested that life originated from a “primordial soup” in a prebiotic environment on the young Earth.
    • This concept is now known as the Oparin-Haldane hypothesis.

     

    PYQ:

    [2012] Which one of the following sets of elements was primarily responsible for the origin of life on the Earth?

    (a) Hydrogen, Oxygen, Sodium

    (b) Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen

    (c) Oxygen, Calcium, Phosphorus

    (d) Carbon, Hydrogen, Potassium

  • [pib] World Heritage Young Professionals Forum, 2024

    Why in the News?

    • India is hosting the UNESCO’s World Heritage Committee meeting for the first time in New Delhi.
      • Theme: “World Heritage in the 21st Century: Building Capacities and Exploring Opportunities for Youth.”

    About the World Heritage Young Professional Forum

    • The World Heritage Young Professionals Forum is an initiative by UNESCO to engage young professionals in the field of heritage conservation.
    • The first World Heritage Young Professionals Forum was organized in 1995.
    • The primary aim is to engage young professionals in heritage conservation and management through capacity building, networking, and awareness-raising.

    Back2Basics: UNESCO World Heritage Sites

    Description
    UNESCO World Heritage Sites Landmarks or areas selected by UNESCO for their cultural, historical, scientific, or other significant value, legally protected by international treaties.
    Importance World Heritage Sites represent collective and preservative interests of humanity, signifying remarkable accomplishments and intellectual history.
    Selection Criteria Sites must be already-classified landmarks, unique and significant culturally or physically, such as ancient ruins, historical structures, cities, monuments, etc.
    Conservation World Heritage Sites require practical conservation to protect them from risks like trespassing, uncontrolled access, or administrative negligence.
    World Heritage Committee Selects and monitors World Heritage Sites, manages the World Heritage Fund, and provides financial assistance. Composed of 21 states parties elected for a four-year term.
    Membership India is not a member of the World Heritage Committee.

     

    PYQ:

    [2014] Consider the following international agreements:

    1. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
    2. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
    3. The World Heritage Convention

    Which of the above has / have a bearing on the biodiversity?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • Karnataka State Employment of Local Candidates in the Industries, Factories and Other Establishments Bill, 2024

    Why in the News?

    The Karnataka Cabinet has approved a bill mandating that industries, factories, and other establishments appoint local candidates in 50% of management positions and 75% in non-management positions.

    • The bill was cleared in a Cabinet meeting chaired by the Chief Minister.

    Key features of the Bill:

    • Definition of a Local Candidate:
      • Born in Karnataka
      • Domiciled in Karnataka for 15 years
      • Proficient in speaking, reading, and writing Kannada
      • Passed a required test by the nodal agency
    • Educational Requirements:
      • Must have a secondary school certificate with Kannada as a language, or
      • Pass a Kannada proficiency test specified by the nodal agency
    • Training and Relaxation Provisions:
      • Industries and establishments must train local candidates within three years if qualified locals are unavailable
      • Establishments can apply for relaxation if local candidates are insufficient
      • The government’s decision on relaxation applications is final
      • Local candidates must constitute at least 25% in management and 50% in non-management positions
      • Non-compliance penalties range from ₹10,000 to ₹25,000

    Do you know?

    • The Punjab and Haryana High Court earlier quashed the Haryana State Employment of Local Candidates Act, 2020, which mandated 75% reservation for state domiciles in the private sector jobs.
    • This decision was made because the State had overstepped its legislative authority and imposed undue restrictions on private employers.

    Background and Rationale:

    • Long-pending Demand:
      • The bill has been passed in response to longstanding demands for 100% job reservation for Kannadigas.
      • Earlier in July, Kannada organizations organized rallies in parts of the State, demanding immediate implementation of the Sarojini Mahishi Report.
    • Sarojini Mahishi Report:
      • The Sarojini Mahishi report, submitted in 1984 by Mahishi, former Union Minister and the first woman MP from Karnataka, included 58 recommendations.
      • The report recommended 100% reservation for locals in group C and D jobs in Central government departments and public sector undertakings (PSUs) in Karnataka.

    Reservation for Locals in Jobs: Constitutionality Check 

    Provision Potential Violation
    Article 14 Guarantees equality before the law and equal protection of the laws. Reservation for locals could create unequal opportunities for non-locals, violating the principle of equality.
    Article 15 Prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth. Reserving jobs for locals based on place of birth or domicile status may constitute discrimination against non-locals.
    Article 16 Ensures equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to employment or appointment to any office under the State. Though it allows reservation for backward classes, it does not explicitly extend this provision to private employment, making mandatory quotas for locals potentially unconstitutional.
    Article 19 Guarantees the freedom to move freely throughout the territory of India. Imposing local reservations could restrict the free movement of people seeking employment opportunities across states, infringing upon their freedom of movement and residence.

     

    PYQ:

    [2017] One of the implications of equality in society is the absence of:

    (a) Privileges

    (b) Restraints

    (c) Competition

    (d) Ideology

  • India to host 2nd Asia Pacific Ministerial Conference on Civil Aviation

    Why in the News?

    • India will host the second Asia Pacific Ministerial Conference on Civil Aviation on September 11 and 12.
      • The conference will be jointly organised by the Indian government and the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) APAC.

    About the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

    Details
    Establishment and Background
    • Founded on December 7, 1944, by the Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation
    • Became a specialized agency of the United Nations in 1947
    • HQ: Montreal, Canada
    Objectives and Mission
    • Develop international standards and regulations for aviation safety, security, efficiency, and environmental protection
    • Promote safe and orderly growth of international air transport
    Structure and Governance
    • Assembly: Meets every three years, includes all member states
    • Council: Governing body with 36 elected member states
    • Secretariat: Led by the Secretary General, manages daily operations
    Membership
    • 193 member states as of 2024
    • Open to all states subscribing to Chicago Convention principles
    • India: Founding member, joined in 1944
    Functions and Responsibilities
    • Establish international standards and recommended practices (SARPs)
    • Conduct audits and monitor SARPs compliance
    • Provide technical assistance and capacity-building
    • Facilitate aviation data and statistics collection
    Key Areas of Focus
    • Safety: Enhance global aviation safety
    • Security: Strengthen aviation security measures
    • Efficiency: Promote efficient air navigation services
    • Environmental Protection: Address aviation’s environmental impact
    Significant Programs and Initiatives
    • Universal Safety Oversight Audit Programme (USOAP): Monitors safety oversight capabilities
    • Universal Security Audit Programme (USAP): Evaluates aviation security measures
    • Next Generation Aviation Professionals (NGAP): Addresses anticipated aviation professionals shortage
    • No Country Left Behind (NCLB): Assists states in implementing ICAO standards and policies
    Publications and Resources
    • Annexes to the Chicago Convention: SARPs across civil aviation domains
    • ICAO Journal: Quarterly publication
    • Global Aviation Safety Plan (GASP) and  Global Air Navigation Plan (GANP): Strategic documents for aviation safety and navigation improvements.
    Regional Offices Seven offices in Bangkok, Cairo, Dakar, Lima, Mexico City, Nairobi, and Paris
    Standards
    • Annex 1: Personnel Licensing
    • Annex 6: Operation of Aircraft
    • Annex 8: Airworthiness of Aircraft
    • Annex 17: Security
    • Annex 19: Safety Management
    Global Impact
    • Harmonizes international aviation policies and procedures
    • Contributes to safe, secure, and sustainable growth of global air transport

    About Asia Pacific Ministerial Conference on Civil Aviation

    • The conference aims to strengthen regional collaboration and develop a future-focused vision for the region, emphasizing innovation and safety.
    • The inaugural conference took place in February 2018 in Beijing.
    • 39 member states of the UN aviation safety body, the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO), from the Asia Pacific region are expected to attend.
    • The conference focuses on making aviation travel sustainable, resilient, and adaptive to the changing needs of a globally interconnected community.
      • This region accounts for 33.41% of global flight departures, the highest of any region worldwide.
      • Passenger numbers are expected to increase from 4.5 billion this year to 11.5 billion by 2050.

    PYQ:

    [2014] International civil aviation laws provide all countries with complete and exclusive sovereignty over the airspace above their territory. What do you understand by ‘airspace’ What are the implications of these laws on the space above this airspace? Discuss the challenges which this poses and suggest ways to contain the threat.