The Centre’s decision to include caste data in the next national Census is a significant change for the ruling BJP, as it goes against their earlier stance on the issue.
What prompted the government to shift its stance and include caste enumeration in the next Census?
Electoral Setback Due to Perception of Anti-Reservation Agenda: Calls for constitutional overhaul and earlier statements questioning caste-based reservations created fear among backward communities about erosion of their rights. Eg: The lack of a clear electoral majority in the 2024 general elections was partly attributed to concerns among OBC and Dalit communities.
Rising Political Demand and Ground Realities in Key States: Increasing public support for caste enumeration, especially in socially diverse states, compelled the government to reconsider its position. Eg: With state elections approaching and widespread demand for a caste census, continuing opposition risked alienating a significant voter base.
Pressure from Social Justice Movements and Civil Society: Growing civil society activism and calls for greater transparency in the distribution of benefits made it difficult to ignore the demand for a caste count. Eg: Public discussions on expanding reservations and ensuring proportional representation intensified the push for a data-driven approach.
Why is there growing concern about the political implications of a caste census, especially in Bihar?
Impact on OBC and Dalit Mobilization: A caste census could provide more accurate data on the representation of OBCs and Dalits, leading to demands for more targeted reservations and welfare programs. Eg: In Bihar, where caste-based politics has been historically influential, a caste census could alter the political calculus by intensifying demands for more affirmative action.
Electoral Strategy and Vote Bank Politics: Political parties in Bihar may try to exploit caste-based data to attract specific voter segments, resulting in increased polarization. Eg: In Bihar, caste-based mobilization has historically influenced election results, and any shift in data could be used to either strengthen or disrupt existing political alliances.
Social Tensions and Division: The caste census may exacerbate social divisions, particularly in a state like Bihar, where caste identities play a significant role in shaping societal relations and political behavior. Eg: Tensions may rise between communities if the census results challenge current power dynamics, leading to potential unrest and further fragmentation within society.
How have national political parties historically approached caste-based policies?
Ambivalence and Opposition to Caste-Based Politics: Initially, national parties were reluctant to fully embrace caste-based policies, viewing them as divisive. This led to a more generic approach focused on broader social and economic justice. Eg: The Congress party, traditionally seen as the party of social justice, was hesitant to fully adopt caste-based policies until the 1990s, when it started advocating for the inclusion of OBCs and Dalits.
Shift Towards Inclusivity and Affirmative Action: Over time, national parties, particularly the Congress and BJP, began adopting affirmative action policies, such as reservations, to address caste-based inequities and broaden their electoral base. Eg: In the 1990s, after the Mandal Commission report, both Congress and BJP supported the implementation of OBC reservations to gain support from OBC communities, especially in states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Caste-Based Mobilization for Electoral Gains: National parties have increasingly used caste-based mobilization as a tool to win elections, though they often avoid explicitly acknowledging it, relying on coalition politics instead. Eg: The BJP, after initially distancing itself from caste politics, has adapted by incorporating OBCs into its fold, as seen in its strategy in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, leading to its dominance in the 2014 and 2019 general elections.
When was the last comprehensive caste census conducted in India?
The Last Comprehensive Caste Census: The last detailed caste census in India was conducted in 1931 during British rule, which included data on various social groups, castes, and tribes.
Post-Independence Efforts: Since then, India has not conducted a comprehensive caste census. However, caste data has been collected through surveys like the Socio-Economic and Caste Census (SECC) in 2011, though it was not as detailed as the one in 1931.
Way forward:
Ensure Data Privacy and Equity in Implementation: A caste census should be conducted with strict guidelines to ensure data privacy and avoid misuse, ensuring that it is used only for policy planning and affirmative action rather than political exploitation.
Strengthen Social Welfare Mechanisms Based on Census Data: The government should leverage the caste census data to create targeted social welfare programs that address the needs of backward communities without exacerbating social divisions.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] Despite comprehensive policies for equity and social justice, underprivileged sections are not yet getting the full benefits of affirmative action envisaged by the Constitution. Comment.
Linkage: The core issue that a caste census, as discussed in the article, aims to potentially improve: ensuring that underprivileged sections receive the intended benefits of affirmative action and social justice policies.
Private Member’s Bills (PMBs) allow Members of Parliament (MPs) who are not ministers to suggest their own laws. In India, most laws are brought by the government and are prepared by different ministries.
What are Private Member’s Bills (PMBs)?
PMBs are legislative proposals introduced by Members of Parliament who are not Ministers (i.e., private members). These bills reflect the individual MP’s views or address constituency needs rather than the government’s official stance.
In 2019, Supriya Sule (NCP) introduced the Right to Disconnect Bill in the Lok Sabha, which aimed to give employees the legal right to not engage in work-related communication after office hours. Though not passed, it sparked national debate on work-life balance and mental health.
How do they differ from government bills in the Indian parliamentary system?
Feature
Private Member’s Bill (PMB)
Government Bill
Introduced by
Any MP who is not a minister
Introduced by a Minister
Drafted by
Individual MP or external inputs
Concerned Ministry
Schedule
Usually taken up on Fridays
Prioritized in regular business hours
Chances of passing
Very low; often symbolic
High; backed by ruling party
Party mandate
MPs have greater freedom
Ministers follow cabinet decisions
Why has the significance of Private Member’s Bills declined in recent Lok Sabha sessions?
Frequent Disruptions and Adjournments: Parliamentary proceedings are often disrupted, especially on Fridays (earmarked for PMBs), reducing the time available for meaningful discussion. Eg: In the winter session, two Fridays were lost to disruptions.
Government Business Prioritised: The government frequently uses Fridays for its own legislative agenda, sidelining private members’ time. Eg: In the Budget Session, the first Friday was used for discussion on the Union Budget instead of PMBs.
Low Discussion Rate: Despite hundreds of PMBs being introduced, only a handful are ever discussed or debated in the House. Eg: Of the 729 PMBs introduced in the 17th Lok Sabha, only two were discussed.
Symbolic Rather than Substantive: PMBs are increasingly viewed as symbolic acts with little legislative impact, deterring MPs from actively pursuing them.
Lack of Institutional Support: No dedicated mechanism exists to screen, prioritise, or fast-track relevant PMBs, unlike government bills which have bureaucratic and legal backing. Eg: The ‘Right to Disconnect’ Bill by Supriya Sule sparked debate but saw no legislative progress due to lack of structured support.
How can reforms strengthen the PMB process?
Protect Time for PMBs as Sacrosanct: Amend rules to ensure that Fridays (or designated hours) reserved for PMBs cannot be overridden, except during national emergencies. Eg: Ensuring uninterrupted PMB discussion time would prevent situations like the Budget Session, where government business took over private members’ time.
Introduce a Review and Prioritisation Mechanism: Create a dedicated committee to screen PMBs for quality, relevance, and constitutionality, and prioritise those with cross-party or public support. Eg: A fast-track mechanism could have helped advance Tiruchi Siva’s ‘Rights of Transgender Persons’ Bill, which ultimately influenced the 2019 law.
Adopt the UK’s Ten-Minute Rule Model: Allow MPs to introduce and explain PMBs in brief speeches, increasing visibility and legislative input without demanding long debate time. Eg: This could help bring forward more unconventional yet important ideas like the ‘Right to Disconnect’ Bill by Supriya Sule.
Way forward:
Institutionalise Support Mechanisms: Establish a dedicated PMB committee and research support system to assist MPs in drafting robust, impactful bills.
Ensure Legislative Space and Time: Legally safeguard specific hours or days for PMB discussions to encourage meaningful debate and democratic participation.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2014] The role of individual MPs (Members of Parliament) has diminished over the years and as a result healthy constructive debates on policy issues are not usually witnessed. How far can this be attributed to the anti-defection law, which was legislated but with a different intention?
Linkage: This explicitly states that Private Member’s Bills are one of the few remaining avenues for individual MPs to suggest constructive policy alternatives, and that the effectiveness of such mechanisms for independent legislative action by MPs has been curtailed, partly due to the unintended effects of the Anti-Defection Law.
The Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs has approved an increase in the Fair and Remunerative Price (FRP) of sugarcane for the 2025-26 sugar season, raising it from ₹340 per quintal to ₹355 per quintal.
About Fair and Remunerative Price (FRP):
The FRP for sugarcane is set under the Sugarcane Control Order, 1966.
It replaced the Statutory Minimum Price (SMP) in 2009-10 to better align with economic conditions and improve farmers’ welfare.
It represents the minimum price sugar mills must pay to farmers for sugarcane.
It is determined by the central government based on Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) recommendations, with discussions involving state authorities and sugar industry associations.
Factors Influencing FRP:
Cost of production: ₹173 per quintal for 2025-26.
Return from alternative crops: Comparison of potential earnings from other crops.
Consumer sugar prices: Affects sugar production costs.
Sale price of sugar: Influences the FRP.
Sugarcane-to-sugar recovery rate: Efficiency of conversion.
Income from by-products: Including molasses and bagasse.
Profit margins for farmers: Ensures financial viability.
State Agreed Price (SAP): States can set SAP, often higher than the FRP, based on local conditions.
Minimum Selling Price (MSP) for sugar was introduced in 2018 to protect farmers, including FRP and conversion costs.
Sugarcane Cultivation in India:
Sugarcane is India’s highest production-value crop, key for producing sugar, jaggery, and khan sari.
Major states: Uttar Pradesh (contributes 50% of total production), Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh.
Sugarcane thrives in a tropical climate (21°C – 27°C), with 75cm-150cm rainfall. It needs well-drained soil and a cool, dry winter for ripening.
India has the largest global sugarcane cultivation area after Brazil.
The ratooning method reduces costs by allowing a second crop from the same roots.
[UPSC 2015] The Fair and Remunerative Price (FRP) of sugarcane is approved by the:
Options: (a) Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs* (b) Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (c) Directorate of Marketing and Inspection, Ministry of Agriculture (d) Agricultural Produce Market Committee
The Supreme Court has ruled that inclusive and meaningful Digital Access to e-governance and welfare systems is a part of the Fundamental Right to Life and Liberty under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution.
Key Highlights of the Judgment:
Inclusive Digital Access: The Court ruled on April 30, 2025, that access to e-governance and welfare systems is a fundamental right under Article 21, requiring inclusive digital ecosystems, especially for marginalised groups.
Focus on KYC Processes: It issued 20 directions to make digital KYC processes more accessible for acid attack survivors and the visually impaired.
Digital Divide: It recognised the digital divide as a constitutional issue, emphasising the need for equal access to digital platforms for essential services and opportunities.
About Article 21 of the Indian Constitution and its Scope:
Article 21 reads: “No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law.”
Initially focused on protecting life from arbitrary state action, it has been expanded to include living with dignity.
Key Judicial Expansions:
Maneka Gandhi vs. Union of India (1978): Right to live with dignity, requiring a fair, just, and reasonable procedure.
Sunil Batra vs. Delhi Administration (1978): Right to live a healthy life and preserve cultural heritage.
Bandhua Mukti Morcha vs. Union of India (1984): Linking Article 21 with the Directive Principles of State Policy, ensuring abolition of forced labour.
Subramaniam Swamy vs. Union of India (2016): Recognized right to reputation as part of Article 21.
Olga Tellis vs. Bombay Municipal Corporation (1985): Recognized right to livelihood as part of Article 21.
Aruna Shanbaug case (2011): Recognized the right to die with dignity as part of Article 21.
K.S. Puttaswamy vs. Union of India (2017): Right to privacy recognized as an essential part of Article 21.
Other Judgments Related to Digital Empowerment
Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978): Laid the foundation for inclusive digital rights, stating that procedures restricting fundamental rights must be fair, just, and reasonable.
Faheema Shirin RK v. State of Kerala (2019): Recognized right to access the internet as part of Article 21 and Article 21A (Right to Education). Denying students internet access in hostels was held unconstitutional.
Anuradha Bhasin v. Union of India (2020): SC held that Article 19(1)(a) protects the freedom of speech and expression via the internet, and Article 19(1)(g) safeguards the right to trade online. Restrictions on these rights must meet the tests of reasonableness and proportionality.
[UPSC 2024] Under which of the following Articles of the Constitution of India, has the Supreme Court of India placed the Right to Privacy?
Scientists working on the world’s largest nuclear fusion project ITER has completed its main magnet system with India playing a key role in building critical infrastructure.
About ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor):
ITER is the world’s largest nuclear fusion research project, aimed at demonstrating that nuclear fusion can be a safe, carbon-free, and sustainable energy source.
It involves 35 nations, including the EU, US, China, India, Japan, South Korea, and Russia.
It uses deuterium and tritium (hydrogen isotopes) to undergo fusion at temperatures over 150 million °C, 10 times hotter than the sun’s core, producing large amounts of energy.
Its goal is to achieve a fusion gain (Q) of 10, producing 500 megawatts of fusion power from just 50 megawatts of input heating power, a 10x gain.
Launched in 1985 and officially founded in 2006, the project began construction in 2007 and is expected to start its operations in 2033.
The tokamak is a doughnut-shaped magnetic fusion device used to contain the hot plasma required for nuclear fusion.
It uses powerful superconducting magnets to confine plasma and prevent it from touching the reactor walls.
India’s Role in ITER/Tokamak:
India has been a full partner in ITER since2005, contributing expertise and technology to key aspects of the project.
It has designed and manufactured the cryostat, a 30-meter-high, 30-meter-diameter vacuum shell made of stainless steel that houses the ITER tokamak and maintains the ultra-cold environment needed for superconducting magnets.
It has developed in-wall shielding to protect ITER’s components from heat generated during fusion reactions.
It provides cryogenic systems to cool the superconducting magnets and RF heating systems to heat the plasma to fusion temperatures.
It has contributed to developing the superconducting magnets, which are essential for plasma confinement inside the tokamak.
Note:
India manages ITER-India, a project under the Institute for Plasma Research (IPR), overseeing key contributions, including diagnostics, power supplies, and other infrastructure.
It is also working on the development of a tritium breeding module for future fusion reactors, ensuring self-sufficiency in this critical fuel.
[UPSC 2016] India is an important member of the ‘International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor’. If this experiment succeeds, what is the immediate advantage for India?
Options: (a) It can use thorium in place of uranium for power generation (b) It attain a global role in satellite-navigation (c) It can drastically improve the efficiency of its fission reactors in power generation (d) It can build fusion reactors for power generation*
A recent survey by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) uncovered eleven inscriptions in Telangana’s Gundaram Reserve Forest, offering key insights into the region’s ancient history, particularly during the Satavahana period.
Key Findings about the Inscriptions:
One inscription mentions a person from the Haritiputra lineage, indicating a connection between the Satavahanas and Chutu dynasty.
The site includes religious symbols such as a trident and damaru, marking the first known religious iconography in early inscriptions of South India.
The inscriptions reinforce findings from Mukkutraopet and Kotilingala, identifying Telangana as part of the Asmaka Mahajanapada.
About the Satavahana Dynasty:
The Satavahana dynasty emerged after the fall of the Mauryan Empire around 60 BCE, ruling over Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Madhya Pradesh.
Simuka, the founding king, reigned from 60 BC to 37 BC and was succeeded by his brother Kanha.
Notable Rulers:
Satakarni I (70–60 BC) conquered western Malwa from the Shungas.
Gautamiputra Satakarni (106–130 AD) expanded the empire and patronized Brahmanism and Buddhism.
Vashishtaputra Pulamayi (130–154 AD) extended his reign to the mouth of the Krishna River.
Yajna Sri Satakarni (165–194 AD) was the last great ruler, expanding the empire to Kokan and Malwa.
Art and Architecture: The Amaravati School of Art flourished during this period, with marble sculptures depicting Buddhist narratives. The Satavahanas promoted rock-cut architecture, including Chaityas and Viharas (e.g., Karle Caves, Ajanta Caves).
Economic and Administrative Contributions: The Satavahanas fostered trade with the Romans, promoted agriculture, and implemented a mixed revenue system. They also introduced tax-free villages for Brahmins and Buddhist monks.
Religious and Social Structure: The Satavahanas promoted Brahmanism and Vedic sacrifices and supported Buddhism. The Varna system governed social structure.
Decline of the Satavahana Dynasty: The empire weakened due to weak rulers after Yajna Sri Satakarni and was eventually fragmented by feudatories and invasions from the Shakas.
Military Organization: The Satavahanas maintained a large military with 100,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry, and 1,000 elephants.
[UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:
1. The last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha was assassinated by his commander-in-chief, Pushyamitra Sunga. 2. The last Sunga king, Devabhuti was assassinated by his Brahmana minister Vasudeva Kanva who usurped the throne. 3. The last ruler of the Kanva dynasty was deposed by the Andhras.
Which of these statements is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) Only 2 (c) Only 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3*
UPSC has explored questions on constitutional morality in relation to case laws and judicial interpretations. It expects you to explain legal principles using real-life judgments. Questions usually test conceptual clarity, analytical ability, and connection to fundamental rights and governance. Many of you understand constitutional morality but fail to you’re your answers with relevant Supreme Court judgments. This is because you often treat constitutional morality as a fixed principle rather than an evolving doctrine shaped by judicial interpretations. The article clearly defines the term, linking it to Ambedkar’s vision and global origins. It compiles landmark cases such as Navtej Singh Johar (2018), Kesavananda Bharati (1973), and Shayara Bano (2017), which illustrate how courts apply constitutional morality. It explains how constitutional morality safeguards diversity by protecting minority rights, gender justice, and democratic principles, providing a clear framework for answering questions.
PYQs Anchoring:
GS 2: Q. ‘Constitutional Morality’ is rooted in the Constitution itself and is founded on its essential facets. Explain the doctrine of ‘Constitutional Morality’ with the help of relevant judicial decisions. [2021]
Microthemes: Case Laws
Recently, our constitutional courts have adopted the concept of “constitutional morality” to help interpret laws and decide if they are constitutionally valid.
Understanding Constitutional Morality
Constitutional morality refers to adherence to the principles and values enshrined in the Constitution, ensuring justice, equality, and democratic governance. It extends beyond mere compliance with laws and promotes an ethical framework that balances power and accountability.
The concept was first introduced by British historian George Grote, who praised Cleisthenes’ democratic reforms in ancient Greece. In India, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar emphasized its importance in the Constituent Assembly Debates (1948), stating that constitutional morality must be cultivated to sustain democracy. He viewed the Constitution as not just a legal document but a tool to instill democratic values in society.
Importance of Constitutional Morality:
Prevents Abuse of Power – Ensures that leaders and institutions do not misuse their authority for personal or political gains. The Supreme Court’s intervention in the Pegasus spyware case (2021) reinforced government accountability.
Safeguards Fundamental Rights – Protects individual freedoms even when societal norms resist change. In Shreya Singhal vs. Union of India (2015), the Supreme Court struck down Section 66A of the IT Act, upholding free speech.
Promotes Social Justice – Challenges outdated customs and discrimination. The decriminalization of homosexuality in Navtej Singh Johar vs. Union of India (2018) was a victory for equality over conservative norms.
Strengthens Democratic Institutions – Ensures that governance follows fair processes. The disqualification of Maharashtra MLAs (2022) for procedural violations upheld electoral integrity.
Encourages Progressive Reforms – Constitutional morality fosters positive social changes, such as the permanent commission for women officers in the Indian Army (2020).
Respects India’s Diversity – Ensures fair treatment of all communities. The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 promotes mother-tongue education, fostering cultural inclusivity.
Source of Constitutional Morality:
The Constitution – The foundation lies in Fundamental Rights (Articles 12-35), Directive Principles of State Policy (Articles 36-51), and Fundamental Duties.
Constituent Assembly Debates – The discussions by Ambedkar and others continue to influence its interpretation.
Judicial Precedents – Landmark rulings like S.P. Gupta vs. Union of India and Naz Foundation vs. NCT of Delhi have reinforced constitutional morality.
Historical Context – India’s struggles against colonial rule and movements for justice shape the moral underpinnings of its democracy.
Role of Constitutional Morality in Protecting India’s Diversity
In a diverse country like India, constitutional morality serves as a protective shield for marginalized communities, ensuring equal rights and social harmony.
Fosters Inclusion – Recognizes linguistic, religious, and cultural diversity, as seen in the State Reorganization Act (1956).
Defends Minority Rights – The Supreme Court’s Navtej Singh Johar (2018) verdict protected LGBTQ+ rights against majoritarianism.
Limits Government Overreach – Judicial review in cases like the Shah Bano case (1985) upheld individual rights against political pressures.
Ensures Fair Laws – The Sabarimala verdict (2018) rejected gender-based discrimination in temple entry.
Encourages Social Justice – The Indra Sawhney case (1992) upheld OBC reservations, ensuring fair representation.
Often, constitutional morality and social morality clash, leading to judicial interventions that favor progressive change.
Key Aspect
Explanation
Examples
Constitutional Values Over Social Norms
The Constitution protects equality, dignity, and freedom, even if society resists change. Social norms may uphold discrimination.
Abolition of untouchability (Article 17) and reservations for SC/ST/OBCs were enforced despite social opposition.
Protection Against Majoritarianism
Prevents the majority from imposing its beliefs on minorities, ensuring diversity and individual rights.
Sabarimala temple entry case (2018) allowed women of all ages to worship despite religious resistance.
Guiding the Evolution of Society
Ensures progressive change and inclusivity, even when society is slow to adapt.
NALSA vs. Union of India (2014) recognized transgender rights and granted legal recognition to the third gender.
Preventing State Compliance with Prejudices
Courts ensure laws follow constitutional values, even if society opposes them.
Supreme Court rulings have protected interfaith marriages, ensuring the right to marry freely.
Equal Application of Laws
Constitutional morality applies to everyone equally, unlike social norms, which vary and can lead to discrimination.
Laws against honor killings protect individual rights, even when families oppose inter-caste or interfaith marriages.
Challenges to Constitutional Morality
Ethical Awareness: It hinders the organic and natural development of liberalism or rectification of the wrongs or ethical ills of the society as it vests powers in the hands of the courts to implement a ‘top-down approach’ of the ideal on the morality front.
Abuse of Power: Opposition parties often accuse ruling dispensations of leveraging police or investigating agencies for political gain.
Balancing Social Morality: Issues like temple entry highlight the challenge of reconciling constitutional morality with traditional practices.
Impact of Absolute Power: The potential of parliamentary democracy to dilute constitutional morality when power becomes centralized.
Judicial Activism vs. Restraint: In the recent past, the Attorney General of India, Mr K.K. Venugopal described Constitutional Morality as “dangerous” to the country. He expressed that the Supreme Court is slowly transforming into a “third Parliament Chamber”.
Public Sentiment vs. Constitutional Principles: Populist demands often conflict with constitutional ideals, making it difficult for state organs to enforce principles without facing backlash.
Inconsistent Interpretation: Varying judicial interpretations of constitutional principles can lead to ambiguity in defining constitutional morality.
Conclusion:
Constitutional morality is the ethical compass of governance, ensuring that democracy functions justly. As CJI D.Y. Chandrachud has observed, “Our Constitution is a moral document aimed at shaping the ideals of justice and liberty.” To uphold its values:
Legal decisions must align with ethical governance.
Institutions must function with transparency and accountability.
Citizens must be aware of their constitutional rights and responsibilities.
Judicial oversight should remain independent and robust.
Ultimately, constitutional morality ensures that India’s democracy remains fair, inclusive, and progressive, adapting to modern challenges while staying true to its foundational ideals.
Back to Basics: Understanding Constitutional Morality
To fully grasp the significance of constitutional morality, it is essential to understand how it differs from legal frameworks and why it is fundamental to a functioning democracy.
What is Constitutional Morality?
Constitutional morality refers to adherence to the core principles and values enshrined in a nation’s Constitution, ensuring that laws, policies, and governance align with the ethical spirit of democracy. It extends beyond legal compliance to uphold justice, equality, liberty, and accountability.
Key Aspects of Constitutional Morality:
Rule of Law: Governance must function within constitutional boundaries rather than personal or political preferences.
Individual Rights Over Social Norms: Fundamental rights must be protected even when they challenge societal traditions (e.g., decriminalization of homosexuality in Navtej Singh Johar case).
Separation of Powers: Different branches of government—executive, legislature, and judiciary—must function independently yet harmoniously.
Checks and Balances: Constitutional morality ensures that power is not concentrated and remains accountable to democratic institutions.
Evolution with Society: The Constitution is a living document that must adapt to contemporary challenges while upholding its fundamental ideals.
Judicial Evolution
Case & Year
Key Ruling & Significance
Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973)
Established the “basic structure doctrine,” ensuring that the Constitution’s core principles cannot be amended, reinforcing constitutional morality by balancing power and restraint.
Maneka Gandhi vs. Union of India (1978)
Expanded the interpretation of personal liberty under Article 21, reinforcing fairness and human dignity in governance.
Krishnamoorthy Case (2015)
Highlighted that constitutional morality is essential for good governance, ensuring democratic principles are upheld.
Shayara Bano vs. Union of India (2017)
Declared instant triple talaq unconstitutional, aligning religious practices with constitutional values of equality and justice.
Union of India vs. Government of NCT (2018)
Stressed that officials must follow constitutional ideals to prevent arbitrary use of power, reinforcing democratic accountability.
Navtej Singh Johar Case (2018)
Decriminalized consensual same-sex relationships (Section 377 IPC), upholding dignity, equality, and personal freedoms.
Justice K.S. Puttaswamy Case (2018)
Upheld Aadhaar’s constitutionality with restrictions, balancing privacy rights with welfare objectives and preventing executive overreach.
Sabarimala Temple Case (2018)
Declared the ban on menstruating women entering the temple unconstitutional, strengthening non-discrimination and gender equality.
[UPSC 2016] Present an account of the Indus Water Treaty and examine its ecological, economic and political implications in the context of changing bilateral relations.
Linkage: India’s action regarding the IWT due to strained bilateral relations stemming from terrorism and outlines potential economic impacts on Pakistan and political/diplomatic implications for India.
Mentor’s Comment: In response to the terrorist attack by The Resistance Front that killed 26 tourists in Pahalgam, Jammu and Kashmir, India’s Cabinet Committee on Security decided to suspend the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) of 1960 immediately. This suspension will remain in place until Pakistan completely stops supporting cross-border terrorism. The decision essentially means ending the water treaty, which was signed in 1960, but there is no clause in the treaty that allows for it to be cancelled unilaterally.
Today’s editorial looks at the recent halt of the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) after a terrorist attack in Pahalgam, Jammu and Kashmir. This topic is useful for GS Paper II (International Relations).
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
India may defend its decision to suspend the Indus Waters Treaty, but this could affect its relationships with neighbouring countries.
Why did India suspend the Indus Waters Treaty?
Response to Cross-Border Terrorism: India suspended the IWT as a strong retaliatory measure after The Resistance Front, a Pakistan-backed terrorist group, killed 26 tourists in Pahalgam, Jammu and Kashmir. Eg: The Cabinet Committee on Security declared the suspension until Pakistan “credibly and irrevocably abjures its support for cross-border terrorism.”
Strategic Leverage Against Pakistan: India views the IWT as a tool of strategic pressure, given that Pakistan’s agriculture and hydropower heavily rely on water from the Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab rivers. Eg: By suspending water-sharing obligations and planning to increase storage and diversion, India aims to weaken Pakistan’s water security.
What legal challenges arise from this suspension under international law?
Lack of Exit Clause in the IWT: The IWT does not have a provision for unilateral termination or suspension by either party. Article XII (4) specifies that the treaty shall continue unless a duly ratified treaty for termination is concluded. Eg: India’s suspension of the treaty violates this provision, as there is no formal exit mechanism within the IWT itself.
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT) Challenges: India’s use of VCLT provisions, particularly Article 62 on treaty modification or termination due to a fundamental change in circumstances, is problematic. India is not a party to the VCLT, and Pakistan has signed but not ratified it, making its application complex. Eg: Using VCLT to justify the suspension may face legal challenges since it doesn’t apply directly in the context of the IWT.
Violation of International Legal Norms: Unilateral suspension of the IWT without mutual consent may be viewed as a violation of customary international law, which favors the continuation of treaties unless both parties agree to their termination. Eg: Legal experts argue that India’s actions undermine the principle of pacta sunt servanda (agreements must be kept), which is a core tenet of international law.
Possible Retaliation and Legal Action by Pakistan: Pakistan has legal recourse to challenge India’s suspension, including bringing the issue to international forums such as the ICJ, UN Security Council, or the Permanent Court of Arbitration. Eg: Pakistan could argue that India’s suspension violates the VCLT or raises a dispute regarding the treaty’s interpretation, seeking a legal ruling on the matter.
How could the move impact water disputes within Pakistan?
Intensification of Inter-Provincial Water Conflicts: Pakistan’s provinces, particularly Punjab and Sindh, already face longstanding water disputes. India’s suspension of the IWT could exacerbate these internal conflicts, especially as the western rivers are critical to both agriculture and hydroelectric power in Pakistan. Eg: Punjab and Sindh have previously clashed over water allocations, and a reduction in water flow from India could heighten tensions, particularly over the allocation of Indus river waters.
Increased Political Instability: A reduction in the water flow from India could lead to widespread agricultural damage and water shortages, particularly in Punjab, which is the country’s agricultural heartland. This could spark public protests and political instability within Pakistan. Eg: The ongoing disputes over projects like the Cholistan Canal between provinces may intensify if Pakistan faces reduced water availability, leading to political pressures on the federal government to resolve these disputes.
Which infrastructure projects support India’s water strategy?
Hydroelectric Projects: Projects like Kishanganga Hydroelectric Project and Ratle Dam utilize water from the western rivers for power generation, in line with India’s share under the Indus Waters Treaty.
Run-of-the-River Dams: Baglihar Dam and Salal Dam regulate river flows for electricity generation, without significant water storage, supporting India’s strategy to manage water resources.
Irrigation and Flood Control: Infrastructure like the Srinagar flood control project and irrigation systems in Jammu and Kashmir helps manage water for agricultural use and regional stability.
What are the regional diplomatic consequences of India’s decision?
Strained Relations with Pakistan: Suspending the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) may worsen India-Pakistan relations, particularly over water access, potentially leading to diplomatic protests. Eg: Pakistan could raise the issue at international platforms like the UN or the International Court of Justice.
Impact on India-China Relations: China, as an upper riparian of India’s rivers, may use India’s suspension to justify withholding hydro data on rivers like the Brahmaputra. Eg: During the 2017 Doklam crisis, China did not share hydro data with India but did with Bangladesh.
Influence on India-Bangladesh Ties: India’s suspension could affect the renewal of the Ganga Water Treaty with Bangladesh in 2026. Eg: Bangladesh could be concerned about water-sharing agreements, given the geopolitical tensions.
Way forward:
Engage in Diplomatic Dialogue: India should initiate diplomatic discussions with Pakistan, China, and Bangladesh to mitigate tensions and seek mutually beneficial water-sharing agreements, ensuring regional stability.
Strengthen Water Infrastructure: India must invest in enhancing its water storage and management infrastructure to maximize its treaty entitlements and reduce reliance on fluctuating water flows.
On May 1, as people around the world celebrate Labour Day to respect workers and their rights, the lives of millions of bonded labourers in India show a sad and harsh reality.
What are the key factors contributing to bonded labour in India?
Economic Vulnerability: Poor financial conditions force individuals to take loans or advances from employers or agents, trapping them in bonded labour. Eg: A family in Andhra Pradesh takes an advance of ₹2,000 to work at a brick kiln, leading them into a cycle of forced labour.
Social Discrimination and Exclusion: Marginalized communities, including lower-caste and ethnic minorities, are more likely to be exploited and trapped in bonded labour due to societal inequalities. Eg: A tribal family from Madhya Pradesh faces exploitation in a sugarcane farm in Karnataka, where they are denied fair wages and basic rights.
Lack of Education and Awareness: Illiteracy and lack of access to information prevent workers from understanding their rights, making them vulnerable to exploitation. Eg: Migrant workers in India often unknowingly agree to exploitative terms, not realizing they have legal protections, as seen with many labourers working in informal sectors without contracts.
Why has the government’s target of eradicating bonded labour by 2030 been deemed overly optimistic?
Low Rescue and Rehabilitation Rates: Despite a target of freeing 1.84 crore bonded labourers, only 12,760 were rescued between 2016 and 2021. Eg: To meet the 2030 goal, around 11 lakh people must be rescued every year since 2021, but actual rescues remain far below this mark.
Lack of Effective Implementation: Government plans and policies exist on paper, but enforcement at the ground level is weak due to administrative apathy and corruption. Eg: Mukesh Adivasi was trafficked and brutalised despite bonded labour being abolished in 1975, showing poor implementation.
Underestimation of the Scale and Complexity: The issue of bonded and forced labour is deeply rooted in economic, social, and cultural structures, making it hard to resolve with short-term policies. Eg: Millions of unorganised migrant workers face bonded-like conditions across industries, beyond the government’s current rescue capacity.
How does the lack of unionisation among unorganised workers affect their conditions and bargaining power?
No Collective Bargaining Power: Without unions, unorganised workers cannot negotiate better wages, safety standards, or working hours. Eg: Migrant workers like Mukesh were forced to work 14–16 hours daily without fair compensation or the right to protest.
Increased Vulnerability to Exploitation: The absence of union support leaves workers exposed to abuse, wage theft, and arbitrary dismissal. Eg: Thenmozhi’s family faced verbal abuse, beatings, and confinement in a brick kiln with no platform to seek redress.
Lack of Legal Awareness and Representation: Unorganised workers often remain unaware of their rights and have no representation to access justice or government schemes. Eg: Many bonded labourers accept exploitative terms due to illiteracy and isolation, with no union to guide or support them.
What was Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s contribution to workers’ rights?
Advocated for Legal Recognition of Trade Unions and Collective Bargaining: Dr. Ambedkar strongly supported the formation of trade unions and the workers’ right to strike, believing these were essential for industrial democracy. Eg: As Labour Member in the Viceroy’s Executive Council (1942–46), he introduced laws ensuring trade union recognition and promoted fair negotiations between workers and employers.
Pioneered Labour Welfare Legislation: He played a key role in framing foundational labour laws related to working hours, minimum wages, and social security. Eg: The Indian Factories Act, 1948, limiting work hours and ensuring basic worker protections, reflected Ambedkar’s vision for humane working conditions.
How have recent Labour Codes undermined his legacy?
Weakened Collective Bargaining Rights: The Industrial Relations Code, 2020, imposes stricter conditions for strikes and allows employers to hire contract workers more freely, diluting workers’ ability to unionise and negotiate. Eg: A strike now requires a 60-day notice in all sectors, undermining spontaneous worker movements.
Erosion of Job Security: The new codes ease the norms for hiring and firing workers in establishments with up to 300 employees, without government approval, reducing job stability. Eg: Earlier, firms with over 100 workers needed government permission for retrenchment; this threshold has now tripled.
Dilution of Social Security Coverage: The Social Security Code, 2020, merges multiple welfare laws but leaves vast sections of informal workers outside its effective coverage due to unclear implementation mechanisms. Eg: Gig and platform workers are included in name, but lack defined contributions and benefits, weakening the universal welfare vision Ambedkar championed.
Way forward:
Strengthen Enforcement and Rehabilitation: Ensure strict implementation of anti-bonded labour laws with timely rescue, rehabilitation, and compensation for victims.
Empower Workers through Unionisation and Awareness: Promote unionisation among informal workers and spread legal awareness to build collective bargaining power and prevent exploitation.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2018] Despite implementation of various programmes for eradication of poverty by the government in India, poverty is still existing.’ Explain by giving reasons.
Linkage: Bonded labour is a manifestation of extreme poverty and the failure of poverty alleviation programmes to reach the most vulnerable, forcing them into debt bondage.
Even before Donald Trump’s time in office, there were clear signs that the world was becoming more uncertain in many areas. This was a warning of trouble in different parts of the world, and leaders in government, business, and strategy had already started getting ready for tougher times.
What are the main global disruptions contributing to geopolitical and economic instability?
Leader-led Disruption and Geopolitical Tensions: Authoritarian leaders such as Xi Jinping, Vladimir Putin, and Donald Trump are reshaping global politics. Eg: Russia’s invasion of Ukraine and U.S. trade wars under Trump have strained international alliances.
Rise of Protectionism and Trade Wars: Economic nationalism and tariff barriers have disrupted global trade. Eg: Trump’s tariff war with China reduced U.S. GDP growth and disrupted global supply chains.
Technological Disruption and Cyber Threats: Rapid tech changes and cyber warfare are causing instability in national security and job markets. Eg: Growing reliance on disruptive technologies without governance frameworks leads to digital vulnerabilities.
Regional Conflicts and Expanding Military Influence: Conflicts in West Asia, increasing military presence, and border tensions are destabilizing regions. Eg: Israel’s offensive in Gaza, tensions in Syria, and China’s naval expansion in the Indian Ocean.
Resurgence of Terrorism and Non-State Actors: Groups like ISIS are re-emerging in Africa and South Asia, causing fresh security challenges. Eg: Recent terror attacks in Kashmir and IS activity in Mozambique and Congo signal renewed threats.
Why is the United States, once a model of democratic stability, now perceived as a deeply divided nation?
Deepening Political Polarization: Internal divisions between conservative and liberal ideologies have intensified, weakening national unity. Eg: Sharp divide over Trump’s policies and Capitol Hill riots in January 2021 reflect erosion of democratic consensus.
Transactional Foreign Policy Approach: U.S. foreign relations have become self-serving, leading to fractured alliances. Eg: Trump’s tariff wars and criticism of NATO allies strained transatlantic relations.
Targeting of Educational and Immigration Systems: Policies against foreign students and elite institutions hurt America’s soft power and economy. Eg: Restrictions on student visas under Trump threatened $40 billion in economic contribution.
Economic Protectionism and Declining Global Trade Role: Shift from free trade to protectionist policies reduced U.S. leadership in global economic governance. Eg: Imposition of tariffs led to decline in U.S. GDP growth and disrupted global supply chains.
How is China capitalising on the shifting geopolitical landscape in Asia?
Expanding Influence through the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI): China is using infrastructure projects to create economic dependencies and increase political leverage across Asia. Eg: China’s investment in the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) strengthens its hold in South Asia and secures a vital trade route.
Exploiting U.S. Retreat and Growing Global Uncertainty: As the U.S. retreats from global leadership, China has stepped in as a key player, especially in the Indo-Pacific. Eg: China’s leadership in the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP), the world’s largest free trade bloc, contrasts with U.S. absence under Trump.
Enhancing Military and Naval Presence in Key Regions: China is expanding its military presence, particularly in maritime zones crucial for trade and regional security. Eg: China’s aggressive stance in the South China Sea, including artificial island building and military installations, asserts control over disputed waters.
Strengthening Bilateral and Multilateral Ties with Neighboring Countries: China is forging strategic alliances with neighboring countries to offset U.S. influence and enhance regional dominance. Eg: China’s growing ties with Southeast Asian countries like Cambodia and Laos, as well as influence in Sri Lanka through infrastructure projects like the Hambantota Port.
Leveraging the China-India Rivalry to Expand Influence: China is exploiting tensions between India and its neighbors to increase its regional influence. Eg: China’s increasing influence over Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh, alongside tensions at the India-China border, shifts regional power dynamics in China’s favour
What implications could this have for India?
Strategic Encirclement and Security Concerns: China’s increasing presence in India’s neighborhood (Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka) creates strategic pressure and challenges India’s regional dominance.Eg: The development of the Hambantota Port in Sri Lanka under China’s BRI is seen as part of a “String of Pearls” strategy encircling India.
Economic Competition and Trade Imbalance: China’s dominance in Asian trade frameworks like RCEP and its export power pose risks to Indian manufacturing and trade sovereignty. Eg: India opted out of RCEP over concerns that cheap Chinese imports would harm Indian MSMEs.
Border Tensions and Military Confrontation: Persistent border disputes, particularly along the Line of Actual Control (LAC), escalate military spending and diplomatic tensions. Eg: The 2020 Galwan Valley clash led to casualties on both sides and worsened India-China relations..
Way forward:
Strengthen Strategic Partnerships: India should deepen ties with like-minded nations through forums like Quad and ASEAN to counterbalance China’s regional dominance. Eg: Enhanced defense and technology cooperation with Japan, Australia, and the U.S.
Boost Domestic Capabilities and Connectivity: Accelerate infrastructure development, self-reliant manufacturing (Atmanirbhar Bharat), and regional connectivity with neighbors to reduce Chinese influence. Eg: Development of the Chabahar Port to bypass China-influenced trade routes.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2021] The USA is facing an existential threat in the form of a China, that is much more challenging than the erstwhile Soviet Union.” Explain.
Linkage: Major shift in the global power balance and a challenge to the established international order (historically dominated by the US post-Cold War).
In a landmark move, the Cabinet Committee on Political Affairs (CCPA) has approved the inclusion of caste enumeration in the 2025 population census for the first time since India’s independence.
What is Caste Census?
A caste census is the process of recording individuals’ caste identities during a national census.
It aims to gather data on the distribution and socio-economic status of different caste groups, helping inform policies related to affirmative action, social justice, and welfare programs in India.
Caste plays a significant role in the country’s social, economic, and political life.
History of Caste Census:
British India (1881–1931): Caste enumeration was part of the decennial census under British rule, used for administrative purposes.
Post-Independence (1951): After independence, the Indian government, led by Jawaharlal Nehru, discontinued caste enumeration to promote national unity and avoid social divisions.
1961 Directive: States were allowed to collect their own data on Other Backward Classes (OBCs), leading to fragmented caste data collection at the state level.
1980 Mandal Commission: The commission recommended 27% reservation for OBCs in government jobs, fuelling the demand for caste-based data. The lack of national caste data made the implementation of such policies contentious.
2011 Socio-Economic Caste Census (SECC): The SECC collected caste data, but it was not officially integrated into the census, and its findings were not fully released, drawing criticism for lack of transparency and application.
Implications of Caste Census:
Political: It can help improve representation for marginalized groups and ensure better-targeted welfare programs.
Social: Unveils intersectional disparities, helping identify gaps in services like education, healthcare, and social protection.
Policy: Aids in shaping reservation policies and resource allocation for poverty alleviation.
Opposition and Concerns: Some worry it may reinforce caste-based divisions, particularly among upper-caste groups and certain political factions.
Electoral and Governance: Accurate data influences electoral strategies, helping parties address community-specific needs.
Legal and Administrative Impact: The 2025 caste enumeration raises issues regarding data collection, classification, and use, ensuring it is applied effectively without reinforcing caste-based disparities.
[UPSC 2008] Amongst the following States, which one has the highest percentage of rural population (on the basis of the Census, 2001)?
The Union Government has reconstituted the National Security Advisory Board (NSAB), appointing Alok Joshi, former chief of the Research and Analysis Wing (RAW), as its new chairman.
About National Security Advisory Board (NSAB):
The NSAB is a high-level advisory body to the National Security Council (NSC).
It plays a crucial role in shaping national security policies and responses to both internal and external threats.
Composition: The NSAB includes eminent individuals from sectors like the armed forces, IPS, IFS, academia, and civil society, selected for expertise in areas such as defense, foreign affairs, internal security, economic affairs, and science & technology.
Key Functions:
Provide expert analysis on long-term security issues to the NSC.
Recommend solutions and policies on matters referred by the NSC.
Contribute significantly to India’s Nuclear Doctrine, Strategic Defence Reviews, and other critical policy frameworks.
Back2Basics: National Security Council (NSC)
The NSC is the apex body advising thePrime Minister on national security and foreign policy matters, coordinating the government’s efforts to ensure the nation’s security.
It was established on 19 November 1998 by Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee.
Members: National Security Advisor (NSA), Chief of Defence Staff (CDS), Ministers of Defence, External Affairs, Home, and Finance, Deputy NSA, Additional NSAs, and the Vice Chairman of NITI Aayog.
Three-Tier Structure:
Strategic Policy Group (SPG): Highest decision-making body.
NSAB: Provides advisory support.
NSCS: Implements NSC decisions.
In July 2024, the NSCS was revamped to fill the Additional NSA post, delegating internal security management and threat analysis to enhance the NSA’s focus on broader challenges.
[UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:
1. According to the Constitution of India, the Central Government has a duty to protect States from internal disturbances. 2. The Constitution of India exempts the States from providing legal counsel to person being held for preventive detention 3. According to the Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2002, confession of the accused before the police cannot be used as evidence.
How many of the above statements are correct?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None
New research suggests that understanding the “clumpiness” of matter, measured by Sigma-8 (S8) Tension, could unlock key insights into the universe’s structure and complexity.
What is S8?
S8 is a measure used by scientists to understand the distribution of matter across the universe, indicating how “clumpy” or evenly spread out the matter (like galaxies, stars, and dark matter) is.
High S8tension means matter is clumped together in certain regions, while low S8 means it’s evenly distributed.
Scientists use S8 to study matter, including dark matter, which is invisible but makes up most of the universe.
The measurement of S8 helps explain how the universe fits together and has evolved since the Big Bang.
Recently, conflicting measurements of S8 have caused confusion, raising questions about our understanding of the universe.
Implications for the ΛCDM Model:
The ΛCDM model (Lambda Cold Dark Matter) is the standard model explaining the universe’s structure, suggesting it’s mainly composed of dark matter and dark energy.
This model assumes that dark energy is causing the universe’s accelerating expansion.
S8 discrepancies may challenge the ΛCDM model, indicating a potential gap in our understanding of dark energy or dark matter.
Possible Implications:
Revised Theories: Scientists may need to adjust their model of the universe due to conflicting S8 values.
Re-thinking Dark Energy: If S8 measurements don’t align with predictions, dark energy might not behave as expected.
New Discoveries: The S8 tension could suggest undiscovered forces or particles influencing matter behavior.
Better Observations: Improved telescopes and surveys, like the Rubin Legacy Survey, may help clarify why S8 measurements conflict with predictions.
[UPSC 2015] In the context of modern scientific research, consider the following statements about ‘IceCube’, a particle detector located at South Pole, which was recently in the news:
(1) It is he world’s largest neutrino detector, encompassing a cubic km of ice. (2) It is a powerful telescope to search for dark matter. (3) It is buried deep in the ice. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*
On Earth Day, April 22, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) launched the Accelerating Innovative Monitoring for Nature Restoration (AIM4NatuRe) Initiative aimed at accelerating nature restoration.
About the AIM4NatuRe Initiative:
AIM4NatuRe is a global initiative launched by the FAO aimed at enhancing countries’ ability to monitor and report ecosystem restoration efforts.
With £7 million (approximately USD 9.38 million) from the United Kingdom, the initiative will run from 2025 to 2028, focusing on restoring 30% of degraded ecosystems globally by 2030, in alignment with the Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF).
Key aspects:
Utilizes advanced technology and data frameworks for ecosystem restoration monitoring.
Targets restoration across forests, wetlands, grasslands, marine ecosystems, and agricultural landscapes.
Integrates Indigenous knowledge in restoration efforts.
Develops tools like the Framework for Ecosystem Restoration Monitoring (FERM) and builds a unified global dataset for transparency.
Key Stakeholders:
FAO: Leads the initiative, providing tools, data, and frameworks to support restoration.
UK: Provides financial backing and focuses on helping countries achieve the 30×30 target.
Indigenous Communities: Contribute traditional knowledge and participate in restoration efforts.
World Resources Institute (WRI): Supports global restoration initiatives, including the Kham River Restoration Mission in India.
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): Shapes the biodiversity framework for monitoring progress on 30% ecosystem restoration by 2030.
World Bank: Provides funding and technical expertise for financing and implementing ecosystem restoration.
[UPSC 2014] Consider the following international agreements:
1. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. 2. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. 3. The World Heritage Convention.
Which of the above has/have a bearing on the biodiversity?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 *
[UPSC 2023] The most significant achievement of modern law in India in the constitutionalization of environmental problems by the Supreme Court. Discuss this statement with the help of relevant case laws.
Linkage: The Supreme Court’s proactive role in integrating environmental concerns into constitutional law, aligns with the source’s assertion that environmental protection is a constitutional imperative aimed at safeguarding fundamental rights.
Mentor’s Comment: A new study published in Nature says that India is the world’s biggest plastic polluter, releasing 9.3 million tonnes of plastic each year—about 20% of the global total. The study defines plastic emissions as plastic waste (like litter and burned plastic) that escapes from areas where it’s at least somewhat controlled and ends up in the open environment, where there’s no control at all.
Today’s editorial looks at plastic pollution in India and the actions taken by the Supreme Court to reduce it. This topic is useful for GS Paper 2 (Policy and governance) and GS Paper 3 (Environmental pollution).
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
A new study published in Nature says that India produces more plastic pollution than any other country in the world.
What does the Nature study reveal about India’s plastic pollution?
India is the World’s Largest Plastic Polluter: According to the study, India releases 9.3 million tonnes (Mt) of plastic waste annually, accounting for about 20% of global plastic emissions. Eg: This includes both plastic debris and open burning, contributing heavily to land, air, and water pollution.
Plastic Waste Emissions Include Mismanaged and Openly Burnt Waste: Plastic emissions are defined as plastic that moves from controlled (managed or mismanaged) systems to unmanaged, uncontained environments. Eg: Waste escaping from open dumpsites or burnt in open fields, common in peri-urban and rural India.
Official Data Grossly Underestimates Real Waste Figures: India’s reported per capita plastic waste generation is 0.12 kg/day, but the study estimates it at 0.54 kg/day, suggesting severe underreporting. Eg: Rural waste and informal recycling activities are often excluded from government reports.
Uncontrolled Dumpsites Far Outnumber Sanitary Landfills: The study found that unregulated dumpsites outnumber sanitary landfills by 10:1, highlighting a major infrastructure gap. Eg: Cities like Patna and Guwahati rely on open dumping due to lack of engineered landfills.
Data Deficiency Hampers Effective Waste Management: Lack of reliable data, especially from rural areas and informal sectors, weakens national waste management planning. Eg: In the Indian Himalayan Region, poor data on plastic waste flow leads to accumulation in fragile ecosystems.
Why is India’s plastic waste data seen as inaccurate?
Exclusion of Rural Areas from Official Data: Government statistics largely reflect urban waste generation, ignoring plastic waste from vast rural regions. Eg: Villages disposing plastic in fields or burning it are not included in national data systems.
Unaccounted Informal Recycling Sector: The informal sector plays a big role in plastic recycling but is not officially documented in waste audits. Eg: Ragpickers collecting and selling recyclables in Delhi or Mumbai don’t show up in municipal records.
No Data on Open Burning of Waste: Open burning, a major source of plastic emissions, is not systematically tracked or included in national waste reports. Eg: In slums and small towns, plastic is often burnt in the open due to lack of collection facilities.
Overreporting of Waste Collection Coverage: India claims a 95% collection rate, but this is likely overstated due to poor documentation and ground reality. Eg: Areas with irregular garbage pickup services are still marked as “covered” in official data.
Lack of Transparent Data Methodology: There is no clarity on how data is collected, audited, or verified by municipal or state agencies. Eg: The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) reports don’t mention the sampling or survey methods used.
How can India improve its waste management system?
Ensure Reliable and Inclusive Data Collection: Create a robust, transparent mechanism to collect data from both urban and rural areas, including informal sectors. Eg: Use mobile apps or digital platforms to track daily waste from panchayats and slums in states like Bihar or Odisha.
Mandate Waste Audits and Public Methodologies: All data-gathering agencies must publish their methodologies and undergo third-party audits to ensure accuracy. Eg: Municipal bodies in Maharashtra could be required to disclose how they measure household waste generation.
Link Local Bodies to Full Waste Processing Ecosystem: Every urban and rural local body should be mandatorily connected to Material Recovery Facilities (MRFs), recyclers, EPR kiosks, and landfills. Eg: Villages in Himachal Pradesh could be linked to nearby MRFs for segregating plastic and compostable waste.
Implement and Monitor Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): Producers, importers, and brand owners (PIBOs) must collect and manage plastic waste they generate, through designated kiosks. Eg: FMCG companies could set up EPR kiosks in towns across Tamil Nadu to collect multi-layered packaging.
Leverage Technology and Geo-tag Infrastructure: Use India’s tech capability to geo-tag waste infrastructure, monitor waste flows, and plan better logistics. Eg: Using GIS-based dashboards to track landfill use and recycling rates in cities like Bengaluru and Jaipur.
What is the Vellore Tanneries Case?
The Vellore Tanneries Case refers to a significant legal battle concerning the environmental pollution caused by the tannery industry in Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India. It is a landmark case due to its focus on the polluter pays principle and environmental justice.
Why did the Supreme Court act on the Vellore tanneries case?
To Enforce Environmental Justice and Fundamental Rights: The Court recognized that pollution from tanneries violated citizens’ fundamental rights to clean air, water, and health, guaranteed under Article 21 of the Constitution. Eg: Villagers in Vellore affected by contaminated groundwater and health issues were denied their basic rights.
To Ensure Accountability and Compliance: Government policies and earlier Court orders had been routinely ignored, so the Court issued a continuing mandamus to ensure time-bound compliance. Eg: The Court directed a committee to monitor clean-up and remediation in Vellore and submit reports within 4 months.
To Uphold the “Polluter Pays Principle”: The Court ruled that polluters must bear the cost of damage to the environment and compensate affected communities. Eg: Tanneries discharging untreated effluents were made liable for both environmental restoration and community compensation.
To Promote Sustainable Development through Remediation: The Court emphasized that restoring the damaged environment is a part of sustainable development, not an optional activity. Eg: Soil and water remediation programs in the affected leather clusters were ordered to be implemented.
Way forward:
Strengthen Data Collection and Transparency: Establish comprehensive waste data systems that include rural areas, informal sectors, and open burning, with clear methodologies and third-party audits to ensure accurate reporting.
Implement Robust Waste Management Infrastructure: Connect local bodies to the full waste processing ecosystem, enforce Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) for plastic waste, and leverage technology to track and manage waste flows effectively.
India’s average Index of Industrial Production (IIP) for fiscal year 2025 has dropped to 4%, the lowest level in the past four years, showing a clear slowdown in industrial growth.
What are the main factors contributing to the slowdown in India’s Index of Industrial Production (IIP) in FY25?
Global Economic Uncertainty: The global economic outlook remains uncertain, affecting India’s external trade and exports. This slowdown in global demand impacts industrial growth. Eg: India’s goods exports grew at a slower pace in FY25, which strains industrial output as global demand weakens.
Lower Domestic Consumption Demand: Slower-than-expected growth in domestic consumption has affected industries that rely on the domestic market, such as consumer goods and durable products. Eg: Consumer non-durables showed a negative growth of -1.6% in FY25, reflecting weak demand despite a fall in retail inflation.
Reduced Private Capital Expenditure (Capex): A decline in private sector investment (capital expenditure) impacts industrial growth, especially in infrastructure and manufacturing. Eg: The dip in capex lending rates, though lower, did not spark sufficient investment, reflecting cautious private sector sentiment in an uncertain economic environment.
Decline in Key Industrial Sectors: Sectors like mining, manufacturing, and electricity witnessed slower growth in FY25 compared to FY24, contributing to the overall slowdown in industrial production. Eg: Mining’s growth plummeted from 7.5% in FY24 to 2.9% in FY25, and manufacturing also saw a decline, affecting overall industrial output.
Weak Goods Exports: India’s goods exports, particularly in the MSME sector, showed limited growth due to strained trade relations, especially with major trading partners like the United States. Eg: The flat growth in FY25’s goods exports, especially from MSMEs, highlights the challenges faced by small businesses and the manufacturing sector in expanding their global market share.
Why has rural consumption remained strained despite a drop in retail inflation?
Lingering Effects of High Food Inflation: Although retail inflation dropped, the high food inflation experienced in the last fiscal year (October to December) continues to affect rural households, leaving them with reduced disposable income. Eg: In FY24, the spike in food prices, particularly for essential items like pulses and vegetables, strained rural budgets, and recovery from this shock has been slow.
Reduced Farm Incomes: Despite lower retail inflation, farm incomes have been negatively impacted by factors like erratic weather, reduced crop yields, and rising input costs, which affects rural consumption. Eg: Poor monsoon and drought in some regions led to crop failures, reducing farmers’ incomes and limiting their purchasing power.
Limited Impact of Inflation Reduction: While overall retail inflation decreased, the price drops were not significant enough in rural areas to translate into meaningful gains in consumption, especially for low-income families. Eg: The fall in vegetable prices towards the end of FY25 helped urban consumers, but rural households still struggled due to stagnant or low farm output and income.
Structural Economic Challenges: Rural India still faces structural challenges like inadequate infrastructure, low wages, and high dependence on agriculture, which limits overall consumption despite lower inflation. Eg: Many rural households rely on agriculture, which remains vulnerable to climate change and market volatility, restricting their ability to consume more even when prices drop.
How has the performance of different industrial sectors (like mining, manufacturing, and electricity) changed in FY25 compared to FY24?
Sector
FY24 Growth (%)
FY25 Growth (%)
Conclusion with example
Mining
7.5%
2.9%
Mining sector saw a significant decline. This slowdown could be due to reduced demand for raw materials and lower production in key mining areas. Eg: A dip in coal mining output due to lower power demand during certain months.
Manufacturing
5.5%
4%
Manufacturing growth slowed down slightly, likely due to lower consumer demand and sluggish export growth. Eg: Lower production in sectors like automobiles and textiles, impacted by weaker global demand.
Electricity
7%
5.1%
Electricity sector growth showed a slight decline, though power production still surged during peak summer months. Eg: Increased power generation in March (6.3%) due to seasonal demand, but overall growth reduced for the year.
What steps can the government take to boost private investment and protect MSME jobs?
Enhance Domestic Demand through Targeted Public Spending: The government can invest in rural infrastructure, housing, and public services to stimulate consumption, which in turn will encourage private sector production and investment. Eg: Increased spending under schemes like PM Awas Yojana or rural roads (PMGSY) can boost demand for cement, steel, and consumer goods produced by MSMEs.
Strengthen Trade and Market Access for MSMEs: By finalizing beneficial trade agreements and easing export procedures, the government can open more markets for MSMEs. Eg: Concluding a bilateral trade deal with the US could reduce tariffs and give India’s 60 million MSMEs better access to one of the world’s largest markets.
Expand Credit Support and Reduce Compliance Burden: Provide low-interest loans and simplify regulatory procedures to ease doing business for small enterprises. Eg: Extending the Emergency Credit Line Guarantee Scheme (ECLGS) and digitizing compliance through platforms like Udyam Assist can help micro-industries scale up with less red tape.
Way forward:
Stimulate Demand and Investment: Boost domestic consumption through targeted rural and infrastructure spending while incentivizing private capital expenditure with tax benefits and interest subvention.
Empower MSMEs for Global Competitiveness: Strengthen MSME access to credit, simplify compliance, and finalize trade deals to expand their global market footprint and protect employment.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] What are the causes of persistent high food inflation in India? Comment on the effectiveness of the monetary policy of the RBI to control this type of inflation.
Linkage: High food prices, mentioned in the article, are putting pressure on rural spending and slowing down the economy.
There has been a decrease in mango harvests. Mangoes don’t taste as sweet as before. They are also getting more expensive. Mangoes are arriving in the market too early. Mango pickles aren’t lasting the whole year. The mango trees are flowering earlier than usual. These are some of the common concerns people have been talking about regarding mangoes in India recently.
What are the observed effects of rising temperatures on mango production and quality in India?
Early Flowering and Fruiting: Rising temperatures cause mango trees to flower earlier than usual, disrupting natural growth cycles. Eg: Farmers report mangoes arriving too early in the market, affecting planned harvest timelines and market dynamics.
Reduced Sweetness and Shelf Life: Heat stress can reduce sugar accumulation in fruits, making them less sweet, and also affect pickle shelf life. Eg: Anecdotal reports mention that mango pickles don’t last through the year and mangoes don’t taste as sweet.
Fruit Drop and Uneven Ripening: High temperatures lead to premature fruit drop and uneven ripening, lowering fruit quality. Eg: In varieties like Alphonso, issues like spongy tissue disorder are increasingly observed.
Sun Scalding and Physical Damage: Intense heat can cause sunburn-like damage on mango skins, reducing market value. Eg: Farmers note sun scalding of mangoes during heatwaves, making them less visually appealing.
Disruption of Pollination and Budding Cycles: Extreme weather events (dry spells, heavy rains, hail) disrupt budding, pollination, and fruit setting. Eg: Farmers report fluctuating weather is altering the timing of flowering, which negatively impacts yield consistency.
Why is there a contrast between anecdotal reports and official productivity data regarding mango yields?
Regional Variations in Climate Impact: While official productivity data presents a national average, anecdotal reports come from specific regions that may have experienced harsher climate conditions. Eg: A farmer in Uttar Pradesh may experience fruit drop due to untimely rains, whereas other regions may report normal or high yields, balancing the national figures.
Difference in Measuring Parameters: Official data focuses on total output in tonnes per hectare, whereas farmers often talk about quality—taste, sweetness, shelf life, or physical appearance. Eg: Mangoes may appear in large quantities, but may not taste sweet or store well, leading to dissatisfaction among consumers and producers alike.
Time Lag in Reporting: Anecdotal reports are immediate and reflect real-time experiences during flowering or harvesting, while official data is compiled and released after the season. Eg: Farmers might report poor flowering due to early summer heat, but yield data may still show good figures after accounting for recovery measures.
Improved Farming Practices Masking Stress: Advancements like drip irrigation, better grafting, and fertilizers may help maintain or even boost yields despite climate-related stress. Eg: A farmer using hybrid varieties may achieve good productivity even during erratic weather, skewing overall data upward.
Sampling and Data Limitations: Official data often relies on sampling or estimates that may not fully capture smaller orchards or severely affected areas. Eg: Small-scale mango growers hit by hailstorms might not be reflected in state-level yield reports that depend on broad sampling zones.
What does research suggest about the resilience and adaptability of mango trees in the face of global warming?
High Genetic Diversity Enables Adaptation: Mango trees exhibit significant genetic variation across different cultivars, which enhances their capacity to survive under changing climatic conditions. Eg: Varieties like Dasheri and Banganapalli show better resilience to heat stress compared to others like Alphonso.
Physiological Mechanisms Support Stress Tolerance: Mango trees possess physiological traits—such as deep root systems and efficient water usage—that help them cope with drought and high temperatures. Eg: In regions like Telangana, mango trees withstand prolonged dry spells better than other fruit crops.
Compatibility with Heat and Drought Conditions: Mangoes can thrive in tropical climates with long dry seasons, making them naturally suited to certain aspects of climate change. Eg: Research from Egypt and India shows mango cultivation persists even as rainfall becomes erratic.
Potential for Climate-Resilient Breeding: The genetic resources available in mangoes make them a strong candidate for breeding programs to develop climate-resilient varieties. Eg: Scientists are working on cross-breeding varieties that combine drought tolerance with disease resistance.
Long Lifespan and Adaptive Growth Patterns: As perennial trees, mango plants can adjust flowering and fruiting cycles over time in response to climatic shifts. Eg: In some regions, trees are now flowering earlier, and though it affects timing, it shows their capacity to adapt development stages.
What are the steps taken by the Indian government?
Promotion of Climate-Resilient Agricultural Practices: The Indian government promotes the adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices through schemes like the National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA). This includes water-efficient irrigation methods like drip irrigation and rainwater harvesting, which help mango farmers cope with erratic weather and water scarcity.
Support for Agro-Weather Advisory and Early Warning Systems: The Indian government has implemented agro-weather advisory services through the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) and state-level agricultural departments.
Research and Development for Climate-Resilient Varieties: The government supports research through agencies like the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) to develop heat-resistant and drought-tolerant mango varieties.
Way forward:
Develop Climate-Resilient Mango Varieties: Focus on breeding heat-resistant and drought-tolerant mango varieties to ensure consistent yield and quality under changing climate conditions.
Promote Climate-Smart Agricultural Practices: Expand the use of efficient irrigation systems, water conservation techniques, and post-harvest infrastructure to improve resilience and reduce losses.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2023] Discuss the consequences of climate change on the food security in tropical countries.
Linkage: The anecdotal observations about mangoes to higher temperatures and climate change. Mangoes are a tropical crop, and changes in their productivity and characteristics due to rising temperatures are a direct consequence of climate change potentially impacting food security in tropical regions like India.
A recent study by the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior suggests that locusts do not behave like gas particles but instead makecognitive decisions based on their perception of nearby motion.
About Locust Swarms
Locusts are large grasshoppers capable of forming massive swarms, consuming up to their body weight in food daily, and traveling 150 km/day with favourable winds.
They are highly destructive, stripping crops and threatening food security. A single swarm can consume food equivalent to the daily needs of 35,000 people.
In India, Locust Control and Research (LC&R) oversees locust management.
The Locust Warning Organisation (LWO), established in 1939, monitors and controls locust activity in states like Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, and Haryana.
The 2019-2022 desert locust outbreak was one of the worst in decades, devastating India, Pakistan, and East Africa, destroying over 200,000 hectares of crops.
Despite existing control measures, locust outbreaks remain difficult to manage due to their rapid breeding capabilities.
Key Highlights of New Research:
Traditional models assumed locusts moved collectively by aligning with neighbours.
However Max Planck Institute reveals that locusts make cognitive decisions based on visual cues.
The study introduced a new mathematical model using neural ring attractor networks, showing that locusts decide on movement based on multiple visual cues, leading to coordinated swarms through decentralised decision-making.
This understanding provides a more accurate model for predicting locust swarm behaviour, crucial for early intervention.
[UPSC 2023] Which of the following organisms perform waggle dance for others of their kin to indicate the direction and the distance to a source of their food?
Padma Awards 2025 recognised 139 individuals for their exceptional contributions across various fields. Notable awardees include actor S. Ajith Kumar, singer Pankaj Udhas, and cricketer Ravichandran Ashwin.
About Padma Awards:
The Padma Awards are among India’s most prestigious civilian honors, announced annually on Republic Day’s eve.
These awards recognize outstanding achievements in various fields, particularly public service.
The GoI introduced the Bharat Ratna and Padma Vibhushan in 1954, with the three classes (Pahela Varg, Dusra Varg, and Tisra Varg) renamed in 1955 as Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan, and Padma Shri.
The awards are not titles and cannot be used as prefixes or suffixes to names.
The number of awards given annually is capped at 120 (excluding posthumous awards and awards to NRIs/foreigners/OCIs).
Award Categories:
Padma Vibhushan: For ‘exceptional and distinguished service.’
Padma Bhushan: For ‘distinguished service of a high order.’
Padma Shri: For ‘distinguished service.’
Eligibility and Nomination:
Nominations are reviewed by the Padma Awards Committee, formed annually by the Prime Minister, with final approval from the President.
Eligibility Criteria:
Open to all individuals, regardless of race, occupation, position, or gender.
Government employees, except doctors and scientists, are generally ineligible.
Awards are generally not given posthumously, with exceptions in extraordinary cases.
A recipient can be considered for a higher category only after five years since their last Padma award.
[UPSC 2021] Consider the following statements in respect of Bharat Ratna and Padma Awards:
1. Bharat Ratna and Padma Awards are titles under Article 18(1) of the Constitution of India.
2. Padma Awards, which were instituted in the year 1954, were suspended only once.
3. The number of Bharat Ratna Awards is restricted to a maximum of five in a particular year.
Which of the above statements are not correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3*
The Environment Ministry has released the Draft Greenhouse Gas Emissions Intensity (GEI) Target Rules, 2025, as part of the government’s efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) from energy-intensive sectors.
About Greenhouse Gases Emissions Intensity (GEI):
GHGs trap heat in the Earth’s atmosphere, contributing to global warming.
Major GHGs include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and synthetic fluorinated gases (CFCs, HCFCs).
GEI measures the amount of GHGs emitted per unit of output (e.g., per tonne of product like cement or aluminium).
It uses tCO2e (tonnes of CO2 equivalent) to account for the impact of all GHGs.
Reducing GEI is vital to mitigate climate change, promoting the use of cleaner technologies in industries to lower environmental footprints.
Key Provisions of Draft GEI Target Rules, 2025:
Target Setting for Industries: Specific emission intensity reduction targets are set for energy-intensive sectors like aluminium, cement, and pulp and paper, for the periods 2025-26 and 2026-27.
Baseline Emissions & Gradual Reduction: Baseline GHG emissions for 2023-24 are established, with targets for gradual reduction over time.
Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS): Industries meeting GEI targets will earn carbon credits that can be traded on India’s carbon market. Those failing to meet targets will need to buy credits or face penalties.
Sector-Specific Applicability: Targets apply to 13 aluminium plants, 186 cement plants, 53 pulp and paper plants, and 30 chlor-alkali plants.
Penalties & Incentives: Non-compliant industries must buy carbon credits or face penalties. The rules encourage clean technologies, like using biomass instead of coal in production.
Alignment with Paris Agreement: The rules support India’s climate commitments, aiming for a 45% reduction in emissions intensity of GDP by 2030 compared to 2005 levels.
Monitoring & Compliance: The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) will oversee the carbon credit market, ensuring compliance through regular progress reports from industries.
[UPSC 2022] Climate Action Tracker’ which monitors the emission reduction pledges of different countries is a:
Options: (a) Database is created by coalition of research organisations* (b) Wing of “International Panel of Climate Change” (c) Committee under “United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change” (d) Agency promoted and financed by United Nations Environment Programme and World Bank
