The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea was established in 1994 before marine biodiversity became a well-established concept
An updated framework to protect marine life in the high seas had been in discussions for over 20 years.
BBNJ is an agreement that aims to protect marine biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ).
ABNJ refers to the high seas, which are not governed by any country but are still important for global biodiversity.
What is the BBNJ treaty?
The BBNJ Treaty also called the Treaty of the High Seas, is an international agreement that aims to preserve and sustainably use the marine biodiversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction.
This includes the high seas, which are outside of countries’ exclusive economic zones and makeup nearly half of the Earth’s surface.
These areas are currently poorly regulated and only 1% of them are protected.
The High Ambition Coalition on BBNJ was launched in February 2022 to negotiate and achieve a comprehensive and ambitious outcome.
Key areas of agreement
The negotiations focus on elements agreed upon such as the-
Conservation and sustainable use of marine genetic resources,
Area-based management tools like marine protected areas,
Environmental impact assessments, and
Capacity-building and technology transfer
Consensus reached
A new body will be created to manage the conservation of ocean life and establish marine protected areas in the high seas
The treaty establishes ground rules for conducting environmental impact assessments for commercial activities in the oceans
Several marine species, including dolphins, whales, sea turtles, and many fish, make long annual migrations, crossing national borders and the high seas
What is the significance of this treaty?
Beyond jurisdiction coverage: BBNJ refers to the areas beyond the jurisdiction of any single country, such as the high seas, the deep sea floor, and the international seabed area. These areas are critical for the health of the ocean, the well-being of coastal people, and the overall sustainability of the planet.
Covers entire oceans: BBNJ comprises 95% of the ocean and provides invaluable ecological, economic, social, cultural, scientific, and food-security benefits to humanity.
Hard-arrived consensus: BBNJ is governed by a patchwork of international agreements, conventions, and bodies, but there is no single comprehensive framework that regulates activities in these areas.
Various threats
BBNJ, despite its resilience in the past, is currently at risk due to several emerging dangers such as pollution, overexploitation, and the observable consequences of climate change.
In the future, the escalating need for marine resources, whether for food, minerals, or biotechnology, may intensify these issues.
For example, deep-sea mining, where valuable metals are extracted from the ocean floor, is becoming more prevalent despite the fact that little is known about the biodiversity in these areas.
Why protect deep seas?
The deep seafloors, believed to be the harshest habitat, are also facing the extinction process.
A recent study assessed 184 species of Molluscs in the deep sea and found that 62% are listed as threatened: 39 are critically endangered, 32 are endangered and 43 are vulnerable.
Yet, the International Seabed Authority, a Jamaica-based intergovernmental body, is allowing deep-sea mining contracts.
Way forward
Ans. Create legally binding instrument
To address these threats, there is a need for a legally binding instrument for BBNJ.
The instrument would provide a framework for the conservation and sustainable use of BBNJ and would address gaps in the current international legal regime.
The legally binding instrument would establish a mechanism for the conservation and sustainable use of BBNJ, including measures to protect biodiversity, manage human activities, and ensure the equitable sharing of benefits.
It would also provide for capacity-building and technology transfer to support the implementation of these measures.
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Central idea: Johns Hopkins University scientists have proposed creation of Bio-Computers’ using a new area of research called “organoid intelligence”.
Background
JHU scientists will harness the processing power of the brain and help understand the biological basis of human cognition, learning, and neurological disorders.
Traditional methods of studying the human brain involve using rat brains, which are structurally and functionally different from human brains.
Building brain organoids in the lab
Scientists are building 3D cultures of brain tissue in the lab, called brain organoids, using human stem cells.
Brain organoids capture many structural and functional features of a developing human brain and are being used to study human brain development and test drugs.
However, brain organoids developed in the lab lack sensory inputs and blood circulation, which limits their growth and sophistication.
Transplanting brain organoids
Scientists have transplanted human brain organoid cultures into rat brains, where they formed connections with the rat brain and were functionally active.
However, human brain organoids are still nested in the rat-brain microenvironment, which limits their relevance to humans.
What is the new “bio-computer”?
The JHU researchers’ scheme combines brain organoids with modern computing methods to create “bio-computers”.
Brain organoids will be grown inside flexible structures affixed with multiple electrodes to record the firing patterns of neurons and deliver electrical stimuli.
Machine-learning techniques will be used to analyze the response patterns of neurons and their effect on human behavior or biology.
Opportunities for “bio-computers”
Brain organoids can be developed using stem cells from individuals with neurodegenerative diseases or cognitive disorders to reveal the biological basis of human cognition, learning, and memory.
“Bio-computers” could help decode the pathology of and develop drugs for neurodevelopmental and degenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s disease and microcephaly.
Challenges for bio-computers
Brain organoids have a diameter of less than 1 mm and have fewer than 100,000 cells on average, limiting their computing capacity.
Researchers will have to develop microfluidic systems to transport oxygen and nutrients and remove waste products.
The hybrid systems will generate large amounts of data that will need to be stored and analyzed using “Big Data” infrastructure and advanced analytical techniques.
An ethics team is proposed to identify, discuss, and analyze ethical issues as they arise in the course of this work.
Conclusion
Biocomputers will harness the processing power of the brain and help understand the biological basis of human cognition, learning, and various neurological disorders.
Scaling up brain organoids and developing microfluidic systems and analytical techniques are the key challenges.
Ethical issues arising from the development of biocomputers will be analyzed by an ethics team.
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Prime Minister has said that well-planned cities are going to be the need of the hour in the fast-paced environment of India in the 21st century.
He emphasized that the development of new cities and the modernization of services in the existing ones are the two main aspects of urban development.
What do you mean by Urban Planning?
Urban planning is the process of designing and managing the physical and social development of cities, towns, and other urban areas.
It involves a range of activities, including land use planning, transportation planning, environmental planning, and community development.
Urban planners work to create livable and sustainable communities by balancing the needs of different stakeholders, including residents, businesses, and government agencies.
Urban planning in India: A quick recap
The first Municipal Corporation was set up in the former Presidency Town of Madras in 1688. It was followed by similar corporations in the then Bombay and Calcutta in 1726. Lord Mayo’s resolution of 1870 laid out a roadmap for these bodies in India. The ‘Magna Carta’ of local self-government is considered to be Lord Ripon’s resolution of 1882. In 1907, a royal commission, chaired by Hobhouse, was established to focus on decentralization. The Government of India Act of 1919 assigned the subject of local self-government to an Indian minister. The Cantonments Act was passed by the central legislature in 1924. Local self-government was declared a provincial subject under the Government of India Act of 1935.
Features of Urban Planning
Land use planning: This involves the allocation of land for various uses, such as residential, commercial, industrial, and recreational.
Transportation planning: Planning for efficient and sustainable transportation systems, including roads, public transit, bike lanes, and pedestrian walkways.
Housing planning: Ensuring the availability of adequate and affordable housing for all residents.
Economic planning: Supporting economic development and growth by creating jobs, attracting investment, and providing business opportunities.
Infrastructure planning: Developing and maintaining infrastructure, such as water supply, sanitation, and waste management systems.
Community engagement: Involving the community in the planning process to ensure that their needs and priorities are reflected in the final plan.
Zoning: Regulating the use of land and the placement of buildings to ensure compatibility with neighboring uses and adequate provision of open space.
Urban design: Creating an attractive and functional built environment through thoughtful design of public spaces, buildings, and streetscapes.
Environmental planning: Incorporating environmental considerations, such as the preservation of natural resources, reducing pollution, and promoting sustainable practices.
Urban Planning Mechanism in India
India’s local governance system underwent a transformation in 1992 with constitutional reforms through the 73rd and 74th Amendments.
12th schedule: Urban planning, regulation of land use, and planning for economic and social development are the first three subjects listed in the 12th schedule.
74th Amendment: It empowers elected municipalities with the task of preparing and implementing plans and schemes for economic development and social justice, along with subjects listed under the 12th Schedule.
Metropolitan Planning Committee (MPC): The 74th Amendment mandates the creation of a MPC for metropolitan cities with over 1 million population, with at least two-thirds of its members to be elected local representatives, to prepare a development plan for the metropolitan area incorporating local bodies’ plans.
Creation of master plans: These agencies prepare “master plans” that regulate land use and development across the city every 10-20 years, such as the Delhi Development Authority or the Bangalore Development Authority.
District Development Authorities: State government-controlled DAs are primarily responsible for urban planning in most of India’s major cities, instead of municipal government or MPC.
Why is it a daunting task in India?
Rapid urbanization: India has been witnessing rapid urbanization, with a significant population shift from rural areas to cities. This has led to unplanned and haphazard urbanization, resulting in inadequate infrastructure, lack of affordable housing, and overcrowding in cities.
Cost of urban planning: The cost of urban planning can be substantial, especially if the plan involves the construction of new infrastructure, such as roads, bridges, public transport systems, and housing. The cost can also vary depending on the level of development, infrastructure, and services required in the city.
Poor infrastructure: Many Indian cities lack proper infrastructure such as roads, public transport, water supply, and sewage systems. This leads to traffic congestion, pollution, and health hazards.
Lack of open spaces: Many urban areas in India lack open spaces such as parks, playgrounds, and public spaces. This can impact the physical and mental well-being of residents, especially children and the elderly.
Inadequate housing: The demand for affordable housing in Indian cities far exceeds the supply. This has led to the proliferation of slums and informal settlements, where living conditions are often substandard.
Corruption: Corruption in urban planning is a significant issue in India. It leads to the allocation of resources based on political and personal considerations rather than objective criteria, resulting in inefficient use of resources and poor urban planning outcomes.
Lack of citizen participation: Citizens’ participation in urban planning is minimal in India. Most planning decisions are made by bureaucrats and politicians, with little input from citizens. This can lead to decisions that do not reflect the needs and aspirations of the people.
Major challenges plaguing Urban Centres
Lack of Efficient Transport: Overcrowded roads, pollution, and increased travelling time due to the dependency on private vehicles in cities, which also contributes to climate change.
Slums and Squatter Settlements: High cost of living in cities leads to the growth of slums as safe havens for migrants, with 35.2% of the total urban population living in slums in India, and Dharavi in Mumbai being the largest slum in Asia.
Degradation of Environmental Quality: Congestion of people in limited spaces results in reduced air quality, contaminated water, destruction of forests and agricultural land for construction, and wastes being channelized to rivers, leading to garbage mountains outside cities.
Sewerage Problems: Inefficient sewage facilities due to unplanned and haphazard growth of cities, with almost 78% of the sewage generated in India remaining untreated and disposed of in rivers, lakes, or sea.
Urban Heat Island: Dense concentrations of pavement, buildings, and other surfaces in urban areas lead to increased energy costs, air pollution, and heat-related illness and mortality.
Urban Flooding: Encroachment on lakes, wetlands, and rivers due to new developments in low-lying areas, ineffective natural drainage systems, and lack of solid waste management leading to flooding and waterlogging.
Ineffective Functioning of ULBs: Imbalance between the powers, responsibilities, and funds assigned to Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) outlined by the Constitution, resulting in their ineffective functioning due to the lack of time-bound audits and revenue dependence on the Centre and State.
Major schemes for urban planning and development
The GOI has launched several schemes related to urban planning to address the issues faced by Indian cities. Some of the major schemes are:
Smart Cities Mission: Launched in 2015, this scheme aims to develop 100 smart cities across India by leveraging technology and infrastructure. The mission focuses on sustainable development, citizen participation, and the use of technology to improve urban services.
Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT): Launched in 2015, this scheme aims to improve basic urban infrastructure such as water supply, sewage, and transportation in cities with a population of over 100,000. The scheme focuses on improving the quality of life of citizens.
Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: Launched in 2014, this scheme aims to achieve a clean India by promoting sanitation and hygiene. The scheme focuses on improving waste management, constructing toilets, and promoting behavioural change.
Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY): Launched in 2015, this scheme aims to provide affordable housing to urban poor and homeless. The scheme provides financial assistance to construct houses and promotes the use of eco-friendly and sustainable building materials.
Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY): Launched in 2015, this scheme aims to preserve and revitalize the heritage cities in India. The scheme focuses on improving tourism infrastructure, promoting heritage tourism, and preserving cultural heritage.
Way forward
To move forward with urban planning in a sustainable and cost-effective manner, the following steps can be taken:
Adopt a participatory approach: Citizens’ participation is essential for effective urban planning. Cities should involve citizens, community groups, and stakeholders in the planning process, from the early stages to implementation and evaluation.
Prioritize sustainable development: Urban planning should prioritize sustainability, including reducing carbon emissions, improving public transportation, promoting renewable energy, and preserving natural resources.
Promote public-private partnerships: Public-private partnerships can provide resources and expertise to urban planning projects. They can also help to mobilize private investment in infrastructure and services.
Use technology to improve planning and implementation: Urban planners can use technology to improve the accuracy and speed of planning and implementation. For example, geographic information systems (GIS) can help with mapping, data analysis, and visualization.
Address corruption: Corruption in urban planning can lead to inefficient use of resources and poor outcomes. Cities should prioritize transparency and accountability in planning processes to reduce corruption.
Prioritize housing: Affordable housing is essential for the well-being of citizens. Cities should prioritize the provision of affordable housing, and this can be achieved through innovative financing models, such as social housing and rent control.
Emphasize the importance of green spaces: Green spaces such as parks, public spaces, and playgrounds are essential for the physical and mental well-being of citizens. Cities should prioritize the preservation and creation of green spaces.
Conclusion
By adopting these steps, urban planning can be carried out in a sustainable, cost-effective, and citizen-centric manner.
This will help address the challenges faced by cities and create livable, vibrant, and sustainable urban environments for citizens.
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The Special Window for Affordable and Mid-Income Housing (SWAMIH) Investment Fund I has raised Rs 15,530 crore so far.
What is the SWAMIH investment fund?
The SWAMIH Investment Fund I is a social impact fund specifically formed for completing stressed and stalled residential projects.
The Fund is sponsored by the Ministry of Finance and is managed by SBICAP Ventures Ltd., a State Bank Group company.
The Fund is considered as the lender of last resort for distressed projects.
Who are eligible for this fund?
It considers-
First-time developers,
Established developers with troubled projects,
Developers with a poor track record of stalled projects,
Customer complaints and NPA accounts, and even
Projects where there are litigation issues.
Significance of the funds
The Fund’s presence in a project often acts as a catalyst for better collections and sales primarily in projects that were delayed for years.
According to the Finance Ministry, SWAMIH Fund has one of the largest domestic real estate private equity teams focused only on funding and monitoring the completion of stressed housing projects.
How many projects so far have been financed by the Fund?
SWAMIH has so far provided final approval to about 130 projects with sanctions worth over Rs 12,000 crore.
The Fund has completed 20,557 homes and aims to complete over 81,000 homes in the next three years across 30 tier 1 and 2 cities.
The Fund has been able to complete construction in 26 projects and generate returns for its investors.
It has also played a critical role in the growth of many ancillary industries in real estate and infrastructure sector having successfully unlocked liquidity of more than Rs. 35,000 crore.
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The Gujarat Govt. informed High Court that it’s setting up virtual traffic courts under ‘One Nation One Challan’ initiative while hearing a PIL on the matter.
What is the One Nation, One Challan initiative?
One Nation, One Challan is an initiative of the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways.
It aims to bring all related agencies, such as the traffic police and the Regional Transport Office (RTO), on one platform, to enable seamless collection of challans as well as data transfer.
The integrated system uses the CCTV network to detect traffic violations and retrieve the registration number of the offending vehicle from applications like VAHAN and SARATHI.
An e-Challan is then generated with the relevant penalty amount, and sent to the mobile number linked with the vehicle.
What did the Gujarat govt inform?
In Gujarat, the initiative is operational in three commissionerate areas of Ahmedabad, Rajkot and Surat since January this year and implementation at Vadodara is underway.
How does the integration help?
Prior to the integration, details of vehicle ownership from a different state could not be accessed through the CCTV network for penalization.
Integration of all states’ RTO data and traffic police data with the support of NIC servers allows access to vehicle registration and related data for violators from different states.
Challans will be sent directly to the mobile number registered with the vehicle.
NIC is set to launch its own application for e-Challan delivery.
How do virtual traffic courts work?
Virtual courts are aimed at eliminating the presence of litigants in the court.
An accused can search their case on the virtual court’s website. Upon successful payment of the fine, the case will be shown as disposed of.
For now, one court is in the process of being designated as a virtual court for the whole of Gujarat.
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Assam’s pyramid-like structures known as moidams or maidams have met all the technical requirements of UNESCO’s World Heritage Centre.
Charaideo Maidams
The Charaideo maidams represents the late medieval (13th-19th century CE) mound burial tradition of the Tai Ahom community in Assam.
The Ahoms preferred to place the departed family members at Charaideo where the first king Sukapha was laid to rest.
The historical chronicles inform that wives, attendants, pet animals and huge quantity of valuables were buried with the departed kings.
The Charaideo Maidams enshrine the mortal remains of the members of the Ahom royalty, who used to be buried with their paraphernalia.
After the 18th century, the Ahom rulers adopted the Hindu method of cremation and began entombing the cremated bones and ashes in a Maidam at Charaideo.
Out of 386 Maidams explored so far, 90 royal burials at Charaideo are the best preserved, representative of and the most complete examples of mound burial tradition of the Ahoms.
Architecture details
Architecturally it comprises a massive underground vault with one or more chambers having domical superstructure.
It is covered by a heap of earthen mound and externally it appears a hemispherical mound.
At the top of the mound a small open pavilion chow-chali is provided.
An octagonal dwarf wall encloses whole maidam.
Ahoms Dynasty
The Ahom, also known as the Tai-Ahom, are an ethnic group from Assam and Arunachal Pradesh in India.
This ethnic group is made up of interbred descendants of the Tai people, who first came to Assam’s Brahmaputra valley in 1228, and indigenous people who later joined them.
Sukaphaa, the Tai group’s leader, and his 9000 supporters founded the Ahom empire (1228–1826 CE), which ruled over part of modern-day Assam’s Brahmaputra Valley until 1826.
Charaideo, more than 400 km east of Guwahati, was the first capital of the Ahom dynasty founded by Chao Lung Sukaphaa in 1253.
The current Ahom people and culture are a mix of the ancient Tai people and culture, as well as indigenous Tibeto-Burman people and cultures that they assimilated in Assam.
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Researchers from the Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bengaluru, have developed a cheap paper microscope (foldscope) connected to a smartphone camera that could find wider application in a variety of research areas, and in some cases potentially replace more expensive equipment.
What is Foldscope?
The Foldscope is a handheld microscope made mostly of paper that can be easily linked to a smartphone camera.
It has a magnification of around 140x and can identify objects just 2 micrometres wide.
It was first created by researchers at Stanford University in 2014.
IISc version of Foldscope costs around Rs 400, much cheaper than that of Stanford’s one.
How is Foldscope comparable to electron microscope?
The researchers found that Foldscope could capture the roundness and aspect ratio of an object to within 5% of those imaged by a state-of-the-art instrument called a scanning electron microscope (SEM).
SEM costs more than Rs 50 lakh each.
Preparing a sample for study through a Foldscope takes less than an hour, whereas the same process for an SEM was “tedious and time-consuming”.
Potential applications
Foldscopes can be used in pharmaceuticals (to inspect drug products), environmental science (to observe pollutants), and cosmetics (to observe powders and emulsions), among other fields.
They can also be used to study “soil particles’ morphology,” which can “help understand soil structure, nutrient availability, and plant growth” in agriculture.
It allows for in-field soil analysis and visualisation of soil structure per Indian Standard Soil Classification System which earlier required bulky microscopes with high resolution.
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The budget’s clear thrust towards capital expenditure is evident in the 33% increase in its allocation. The primary goal of this allocation is to bolster aggregate demand in the short term and enhance the economy’s productive capacity in the long term. This strategy is widely regarded as beneficial, especially considering the crucial role that infrastructure plays in the growth and development of any economy.
Capex of the states exceed than the central govt: The combined spending of Indian states on capital expenditure now exceeds that of the central government.
For example: In 2021-22, this figure combined for states and Union territories, according to budget estimates, was ₹10.5 trillion. The Centre’s effective capital expenditure that year was ₹8.4 trillion, including ₹2.5 trillion as grant for creation of assets.
What is Capital Expenditure (CAPEX)?
Capital expenditure refers to investments in upgrading existing or building new physical assets by the government or private businesses.
As businesses expand, capex has a multiplier effect on the economy, creating demand and unleashing animal spirits.
Main types of Capex
Infrastructure development: This includes building and upgrading public infrastructure such as roads, highways, railways, ports, airports, power plants, and water supply systems.
Defence and security: This involve the acquisition and maintenance of defence equipment, weapons systems, and other security-related investments.
Social sector spending: This includes investment in areas such as education, healthcare, and social welfare programs to improve the quality of life of the citizens.
Rural development: This includes spending on agricultural and rural infrastructure such as irrigation systems, rural electrification, and rural housing.
Capital investments in public sector enterprises: The government may also invest capital in public sector enterprises to improve their efficiency and profitability
Key reasons why the Indian government emphasizes Capex?
Promoting economic growth: Capital expenditure is critical for promoting economic growth by creating demand for goods and services, boosting private sector investment, and increasing employment opportunities. By investing in infrastructure, the government can provide the necessary framework for businesses to grow and thrive.
Improving public services: Capital expenditure is required to build and upgrade public facilities such as hospitals, schools, and water supply systems, and provide necessary equipment and supplies. This investment in public services is crucial for improving the quality of life of citizens and promoting social and economic development.
Infrastructure development: It is critical for promoting trade, commerce, and investment, and improving the country’s overall competitiveness. By investing in infrastructure, the government can create new economic opportunities, support the growth of existing industries, and attract foreign investment.
Creating employment opportunities: Capital expenditure creates employment opportunities in the short term through the construction of infrastructure projects and in the long term by supporting economic growth and promoting private sector investment.
Attracting private sector investment: The government’s emphasis on Capex can also help attract private sector investment by providing the necessary infrastructure and a favourable business environment.
What are the concern over State capex?
Uneven capacity CAPEX: One general macro-economic challenge is to address this uneven inclination of states or capacity for capital expenditure, which adds uncertainty to the impact of an expansionary fiscal policy led by capex, thus weakening its potential benefits.
The ultimate aim of all CAPEX is to enhance the productive capacity of the economy: The nature of state capital expenditure drawn in is also vitally important. Ideally, the nature of state capital expenditure drawn in by central capital expenditure should be such that it dovetails with the latter to optimize long-term enhancements of economic capacity.
States have tendency to postpone capex: The Union budget for 2023-24 encourages states to make reforms in urban local bodies to become creditworthy for municipal bond issuance. However, states have a tendency to postpone capital expenditure until revenue streams firm up.
States need to improve their execution capacity and establish an enabling regulatory environment to ensure quality and speed of expenditure.
The planning and budgeting cycle of states should also be aligned with fund releases to fully utilize resources within the available time.
States play a crucial role in capital expenditure and must not only budget more but also spend fully and uniformly throughout the year.
Conclusion
States need to prioritize timely and efficient execution of capital expenditure and fully utilizing budgeted capital amounts uniformly throughout the year. The RBI report, while acknowledging that Indian states made higher capital outlays in 2022-23, notes that states would do well to mainstream capital planning rather than treating them as residuals and first stops for cutbacks in order to meet budgetary targets.
Mains Question
Q. What do you understand by Capital Expenditure (CAPEX)? Highlight the concerns over capex by the states and suggest a way ahead.
The process of drafting our Constitution during Partition and after a long period of colonization was a magnificent and dynamic process. Despite being part of the Assembly, voices and contributions of women have been neglected and overshadowed. The riveting work by Achyut Chetan,” The Founding Mothers of the Republic” published by Cambridge University Press in 2022 serves as a means of rectifying this historical omission and giving due credit to the women who played a crucial role in shaping India’s democracy.
Women In constitutional Assembly
When the Constitution was completed, there were 11 women members of the Constituent Assembly who signed onto it.
These drafters were G Durgabai, Ammu Swaminathan, Amrit Kaur, Dakshayani Velayudhan, Hansa Mehta, Renuka Ray, Sucheta Kripalani, Purnima Banerjee, Begum Qudsiya Aizaz Rasul, Kamala Chaudhri and Annie Mascarene.
The Constituent Assembly first met on December 11, 1946 and had 169 sessions before all its members signed the document on January 24, 1950
How do we know what happened in the Constituent Assembly?
Constituent Assembly Debates (CAD) is the only source: A rich but by no means the only source is the 12 volumes of the Constituent Assembly Debates (CAD), consisting of speeches made by members and the amendments to the draft articles.
CAD misses no. of reports and notes pf various committes: However, what the CAD does not have are the reports and notes of the various committees of the CA.
For instance: Much groundbreaking work was done in the Advisory Committee (chaired by Vallabhbhai Patel), which in turn had two sub-committees the Fundamental Rights Sub Committee and the Minorities Sub-Committee.
Role of Women in the constituent assembly
Hansa Mehta and Amrit kaur: Hansa Mehta and Amrit Kaur were on the Advisory Committee, with both being members of the Fundamental Rights Sub Committee and Kaur serving also on the Minorities Sub-Committee.
G Durgabai: G Durgabai occupied effective positions on two important committees on procedural affairs The Steering Committee and the Rules Committee.
Women were highly active: Women members were present and highly active on almost all significant committees and subcommittees.
Women members often faced disrespect and discrimination: For instance, Renuka Ray opposed the clause on the Right to Property which put the compensation given within the purview of courts. During the debates on the floor of the Assembly too she was constantly interrupted and heckled even by the men of the eminence and tried to deride their amendments
Women members made their opinions known and stood firm: In the settings of the committees they wrote notes of dissent, Amrit Kaur and Hansa Mehta wrote notes of dissent against decisions that relegated the uniform civil code to the non-justiciable rights, allowed the state to impose conscription for compulsory military service, at each stage when the committees made their official recommendations to the higher bodies of the Assembly
For Instance: Views of Dakshayani Velayudhan on reservation
Dakshayani Velayudhan, the only woman member from the Scheduled Castes communities, argued against reservations.
She refused by saying “to believe that 70 million Harijans are to be considered as a minority and argued that reservations would not be in the best interests of them.
She also argued that “the working of the Constitution will depend upon how the people will conduct themselves in the future, not on the actual execution of the law. When this Constitution is put into practice, what we want is not to punish the people for acting against the law, but for the state to take on the task of educating citizens for a transformation.”
Representative governments increased but women count remains low: According to UN Women, as of September 2022, there were 30 women serving as elected heads of state and/or of government in 28 countries (out of a total of 193 UN member states).
Dichotomy in active participation: There is the dichotomy between the rapid increase of women’s participation as voters in elections and other political activities, and the slow rise of female representation in Parliament.
Global average women representation: As of May 2022, the global average of female representation in national parliaments was 26.2 percent.
Above average representation: The Americas, Europe, and Sub-Saharan Africa have women’s representation above the global average;
Below average representation: Asia, the Pacific region, and the Middle East and Northern Africa (MENA) region, are below average.
Varied representation within Asian countries:
The South Asian countries faring worse than the others.
IPU data of May 2022 showed that women’s representation in Nepal, for example, was 34 percent, in Bangladesh 21 percent, in Pakistan 20 percent, in Bhutan 17 percent and in Sri Lanka 5 percent.
For India, women’s representation in the Lok Sabha (the Lower House) has remained slightly below 15 percent.
The study does not include Afghanistan, but World Bank data of 2021 stated that female representation in the country’s last parliament was 27 percent.
Conclusion
As we approach 75 years of our Constitution, it’s time for scholars, teachers, students, lawyers, judges and all others who engage with our constitution-making efforts to look to sources that tell a more complete story of our drafters. The quiet women and the more visible men should both be recalled, for their roles and their contributions. That would be an accurate telling of how our founding document came to be.
Mains Question
Q. The role of women in constitution making has often been neglected. In light of this illustrate the participation of women during India’s constitution making process.
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