During the tenure of Chief Justices D.Y. Chandrachud and Sanjiv Khanna, authorities appointed 15 out of 17 judges to the Madras High Court from BC, OBC, MBC, SC, or ST communities.
Why is BC/OBC/SC/ST representation highest in Madras High Court?
Strong Social Justice Framework in Tamil Nadu: Tamil Nadu has a long history of affirmative action and reservation policies aimed at uplifting Backward Classes (BC), Other Backward Classes (OBC), Most Backward Classes (MBC), Scheduled Castes (SC), and Scheduled Tribes (ST), which creates a larger pool of eligible candidates from these communities.
Better Educational Access and Mobility: The state contributes disproportionately to the OBC population in higher education—while Tamil Nadu has about 10% of India’s OBC population, it accounts for 13% of OBCs enrolled in higher education nationally. This leads to higher qualifications among BC/OBC candidates, increasing their chances of judicial appointments.
Collegium Appointments Reflect State Demographics: The Supreme Court Collegium, while selecting judges, considers inputs from the state, and the Madras High Court appointments reflect this social reality, with 88.2% of recent appointees belonging to BC/OBC/MBC/SC/ST groups, the highest among all High Courts.
Why do Southern High Courts have more non-general category judges?
Higher Social Mobility and Educational Access: Southern States like Tamil Nadu have better upward social mobility for BC/OBC groups, reflected in higher enrollment rates in higher education. Eg, Tamil Nadu has about 10% of India’s OBC population but accounts for 13% of OBCs in higher education nationally, which leads to greater representation in judicial appointments.
Regional Political and Social Dynamics: Southern States often have political environments and social policies that encourage inclusion of non-general categories in key positions. Eg, Madras High Court had 88.2% of appointees from BC/OBC/SC/ST groups, the highest share among all High Courts.
What role do Chief Ministers and State Intelligence play in appointments?
Chief Ministers’ Opinions Are Considered: The Supreme Court Collegium takes into account the views of Chief Ministers during the appointment process, which can subtly influence the selection of judges. Eg, this influence might explain variations in representation across States, though the exact extent of their impact is unclear.
State Intelligence Inputs Are Used: The Collegium also reviews inputs from the State Intelligence Branch to assess candidates’ suitability and background. Eg, such inputs could affect appointments in States like Rajasthan, where political and security considerations might play a role.
How does BC social mobility affect judicial representation?
Women from Non-General Categories Are Represented but in Small Numbers: Out of 34 women appointed, several belonged to BC, OBC, MBC, SC, or ST communities, showing some diversity in gender and social groups. Eg, at the Madras High Court, 5 women were appointed, including one from BC, one from MBC, and three from OBC categories.
Other High Courts Also Appoint Women from Non-General Categories: States like Telangana, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Guwahati, and Manipur have women appointees from various non-general groups, reflecting broader inclusivity. Eg, Telangana appointed women from BC and OBC categories, while Manipur had a woman appointee from the ST category.
Way forward:
Institutionalize Diversity Criteria in Appointments: Formal guidelines should be introduced to ensure fair representation of BC/OBC/SC/ST and women in judicial appointments across all High Courts.
Strengthen Educational and Legal Training Access: Expand scholarships, coaching, and mentorship programs for underrepresented communities to build a larger pool of eligible candidates for the judiciary.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2021] Discuss the desirability of greater representation to women in the higher judiciary to ensure diversity, equity and inclusiveness.
Linkage: While the article focuses on social categories (caste/class), the underlying theme of ensuring diversity and representation in the judiciary is common. The article also provides data on women appointees, including their social categories in Madras HC.
N4S: UPSC often asks questions about India’s space sector by linking technology with governance, economy, and global partnerships (e.g., India’s role in commercial space or policy hurdles). Many aspirants struggle because they focus only on technology and ISRO’s achievements but ignore policy, private sector participation, and global trends. This article bridges that gap by covering India’s commercialization push, regulatory concerns (e.g., FDI policies), and lessons from global space economies (e.g., NASA-private sector collaborations). One standout feature of this piece is the BACK2BASICS section which gives an idea of the evolution of India’s space industry.
PYQ ANCHORING
India has achieved remarkable successes in unmanned space missions including the Chandrayaan and Mars Orbiter Mission, but has not ventured into manned space mission, both in terms of technology and logistics? Explain critically. [GS 3, 2017]
What is India’s plan to have its own space station and how will it benefit our space programme? [GS 3, 2019]
MICROTHEMES: Space Technology
“The future of humanity will go one of two ways: either we become a spacefaring civilization, or we stay on Earth until something wipes us out.” – Elon Musk
Space is no longer just about exploration—it’s a fast-growing industry, and India is stepping up. ISRO’s upcoming AST SpaceMobile launch and Chandrayaan-3’s success signal a shift from a government-led program to a rising commercial force.
But building a space economy takes more than rockets. Financial and regulatory hurdles remain. Can India turn ambition into a sustainable, profitable space industry?Global models show that commercialization isn’t optional—it’s the future. The question is: can India lead it?
India’s Plans to Commercialize Its Space Sector
India is moving fast to open up its space sector to private players and foreign investors—aiming to boost innovation, reduce dependence, and become globally competitive. Key reforms include:
Private Participation: Private firms, once limited to supplying ISRO, can now build, launch, and operate satellites and rockets. NSIL promotes tech transfer and private sector growth.IN-SPACe gives private players access to ISRO’s infrastructure for commercial activity.
Foreign Investment: FDI is allowed up to 100% in satellites but currently needs government approval.A new policy is expected to ease norms and attract global capital into startups and private firms.
Technology Transfer: ISRO will share its tech with private players to boost innovation. NSIL handles commercialization and supports private adoption.Foreign tech tie-ups are also encouraged to keep India competitive.
Global Alignment: India is aligning its space laws with international norms to enable collaboration and investment. Compliance with global treaties is key for future ventures in exploration, tourism, and commerce.
These reforms mark a shift from a state-run model to a competitive, private-led ecosystem—positioning India as a serious player in the global space economy.
Recent Developments in India’s Space Sector [Dominate Prelims]
Area
Breakthrough
Significance
Advancing Solar Research
Aditya-L1 reached its halo orbit at Lagrange Point-1 (Jan 2024)
Boosts space weather forecasting, crucial for satellite safety & communications. India joins US, Europe & China in solar research.
Reusable Launch Vehicles (RLV)
Successful RLV-LEX-02 & LEX-03 tests (March & June 2024)
Cuts launch costs by 80%, making space more affordable. ‘Pushpak’ prototype proves future reusable rocket tech.
Space Docking & Future Space Station
SpaDeX (Dec 2024) – India’s 1st space docking experiment
Essential for in-orbit refueling, deep-space missions & future Bharatiya Antariksh Station (2035). India joins US, Russia & China in docking tech.
Gaganyaan Human Spaceflight
First Indian crewed mission to space (2025)
3 astronauts in low-Earth orbit for 3 days! Successful crew escape test & astronaut training in Russia & Bengaluru.
Reduces environmental impact of rocket launches. Chandrayaan-3 lander used non-toxic fuel!
Lunar Ambitions & Chandrayaan-4
India’s first Moon sample return mission approved
Next step after Chandrayaan-3’s success. India to bring back lunar samples, just like China’s Chang’e-5!
Space Economy and India’s Global Influence
India has long shaped global perceptions through its IT and pharma sectors. Now, with rising global interest in ISRO, space technology could be India’s next driver of economic growth and soft power.
Role of Space Tech in boosting India’s Soft Power [X-Factor Mains]
1. Affordable Solutions: Like IT, India’s space missions are known for cost-efficiency (e.g., Mangalyaan). Low-cost satellite launches and services can attract global clients, especially from developing nations.
2. Strategic Space Diplomacy: The South Asia Satellite (2017) offered free services to neighbors, strengthening regional ties. Space-based solutions in disaster management, navigation, and communication can enhance India’s leadership in the Global South.
3. Tech Partnerships with Developing Nations: India can export space expertise to countries that lack it—just as it did with generic medicines in Africa. Applications in agriculture, weather forecasting, and security are in high demand.
4. Global Collaborations: Projects like NISAR with NASA and other joint missions raise India’s profile and foster geopolitical partnerships.
5. Rise of Space Startups: Private firms like Skyroot and Agnikul echo the IT startup wave of the 1990s.With the right support, they could make India a major exporter of space tech.
India vs Global Space Commercialization: Key Comparisons & Takeaways
But the rise of private players like SpaceX and Blue Origin has already revolutionized space commercialization, raising an important question: Can India replicate their success, or does it need a unique approach?
Aspect
Global (SpaceX, NASA, ESA)
India (ISRO + Startups)
Key Takeaway / Way Forward
Funding
Strong govt + private capital + VC backing
Limited funding; reliant on ISRO contracts
Expand VC access; enable private capital inflow
Regulatory Clarity
US & EU have clear space laws
New Space Policy 2023 promising but needs faster rollout
Implement policies swiftly; reduce entry barriers
Public-Private Synergy
NASA-SpaceX model; ESA supports startups
IN-SPACe, NSIL reforms underway
Build a collaborative ISRO-led ecosystem
Tech Focus
Reusability (Falcon 9), high-end R&D
Cost-effective tech; early RLV development
Scale R&D in reusable and dual-use tech
Ecosystem Depth
Mature supply chains, aerospace hubs
Nascent; talent migration from ISRO to startups growing
Build clusters; foster academia-industry linkages
Market Strategy
Deep space, tourism, satellite internet
Focus on launch services, dev-focused apps
Leverage low-cost advantage to expand global market share
Space Sustainability
Active debris removal, space traffic mgmt.
Early-stage; needs space debris and traffic oversight
Invest in space sustainability infrastructure
Way Forward
Tech Collaboration: India should actively partner with global space agencies such as NASA, ESA, and others to enhance research and development (R&D) capabilities and secure funding for advanced space projects.
Global Launch Hub: Leveraging India’s cost-effective space launch capabilities, the country should position itself as a dominant player in the global small satellite market, attracting international customers.
Defense Readiness: India must strengthen its space security by establishing a dedicated Space Command and investing in Anti-Satellite (ASAT) technology, space-based surveillance, and cybersecurity measures to safeguard national interests.
Innovation Boost: The government should foster a thriving private space industry by providing grants, incubation support, and streamlined regulatory clearances to accelerate innovation and competitiveness in the sector.
#BACK2BASICS: Stages of Development of India’s Space Sector
Phase
Time Period
Key Characteristics & Milestones
1. Foundation Phase
1960s – 1980s
– Establishment of INCOSPAR (1962) under Vikram Sarabhai. – Formation of ISRO (1969) and Department of Space (1972). – Launch of Aryabhata (1975), India’s first satellite. – Development of Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV-3, 1980), marking India’s entry into space launch technology.
2. Operational Phase
1980s – 2000s
– Development of Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV, 1993) and Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV, 2001). – Expansion of remote sensing capabilities (IRS series). – Growth in communication satellites (INSAT series). – India becomes a self-reliant space-faring nation with indigenous launch systems.
3. Expansion & Global Recognition
2000s – 2020
– Chandrayaan-1 (2008) confirms water on the Moon. – Mangalyaan (2013) makes India the first nation to reach Mars in its first attempt. – Record 104 satellites launch (2017) by PSLV. – GSAT, Cartosat, RISAT series bolster communication, navigation, and earth observation capabilities.
4. Commercialization Phase (Current)
2020 – Present
– New Space Policy 2023 allows private sector participation. – Establishment of IN-SPACe to regulate and promote private investments. – Entry of startups like Skyroot Aerospace, Agnikul Cosmos, and others. – ISRO’s commercial arm NSIL handling commercial satellite launches. – Increased global partnerships, e.g., ISRO launching foreign satellites for commercial gains. – Gaganyaan mission to demonstrate human spaceflight capabilities.
Key Issues Associated with India’s Space Sector
Category
Key Challenge
Issue
Example
Economic & Industrial Constraints
Limited Budget
ISRO’s ~$1.95B budget is far smaller than NASA’s $25B, limiting private sector growth.
India holds just 2% of the global space market, while the U.S. dominates with over 50%.
Slow Reusable Rocket Development
ISRO lags behind SpaceX and Blue Origin, making launches costly and less competitive.
SpaceX’s Falcon 9 has drastically reduced launch costs, while ISRO still relies on expendable rockets.
Regulatory & Policy Hurdles
Regulatory Delays
New Space Policy 2023 faces bureaucratic hurdles; startups struggle with funding and approvals.
IN-SPACe is evolving, causing uncertainty for over 150 Indian space startups.
Lack of Clear Private Sector Roadmap
Unclear policies on private sector participation slow down investment and innovation.
SpaceX and Blue Origin benefit from NASA’s structured contracts, while Indian startups face uncertainty.
Technological & Security Challenges
Rising Space Debris
No independent space traffic management; increasing launches raise collision risks.
In 2023, 3,143 space objects were added to orbit, increasing the risk of satellite collisions.
Cybersecurity Risks
No dedicated Space Cybersecurity Command; satellites vulnerable to hacking.
The 2020 GPS spoofing attacks on military satellites highlight growing cyber threats.
Geopolitical & Environmental Factors
Climate Change Threats
Rising temperatures, cyclones, and sea-level rise threaten key launch sites.
Sriharikota is vulnerable to coastal erosion and extreme weather events.
Growing Global Competition
China, UAE, and South Korea are advancing rapidly in deep-space missions.
China’s lunar base plan for 2035 and UAE’s Mars mission showcase increasing competition.
Military Space Lag
India lacks space-based defense assets compared to rivals like China.
China has 300+ military satellites, while India is still developing dedicated defense satellites.
PRACTICE QUESTION
India’s growing space economy presents new opportunities for technological innovation, entrepreneurship, and strategic autonomy. Examine the challenges and prospects of building a robust space economy.
Demand: The question demands an examination of India’s space economy, focusing on its growth potential, strategic importance, and the key challenges hindering its full realisation.
[UPSC 2024] Distinguish between gender equality, gender equity and women’s empowerment. Why is it important to take gender concerns into account in programme design and implementation?
Linkage: Gender concerns are important in programme design, aligning with the article’s argument that nutrition programmes like POSHAN have limited impact.
Mentor’s Comment: India’s free foodgrain programme, which supports 800 million people, shows a harsh truth: hunger and malnutrition are still big problems. In this fight against malnutrition, women and girls are often ignored. Even though the economy is growing and many welfare schemes exist, nutrition is still very unequal, especially for women. The government started the POSHAN Abhiyaan in 2018 to make India free of malnutrition by 2022. This scheme focuses on improving nutrition for pregnant women, new mothers, teenage girls, and young children. But, big differences in nutrition levels still remain.
Today’s editorial discusses malnutrition among women and girls in India, despite government efforts like the POSHAN Abhiyaan. This topic is useful for GS Paper I (Women-related Issues) and GS Paper II (Welfare State).
_
Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
The government launched the POSHAN Abhiyaan to end malnutrition by 2022, but it has not achieved its goals.
How does malnutrition in India remain deeply gendered?
Stark Anaemia Disparity: NFHS-5 reports 57% of women aged 15–49 are anaemic compared to 26% of men, highlighting deep nutritional inequality.
Underweight Burden: Nearly 1 in 5 women is underweight, a sharp contrast to men and a sign of chronic deprivation.
Entrenched Norms: In poorer households, women eat last and least, reinforcing invisible cultural biases that deny them basic nutritional rights.
Economic Disempowerment: 49% of women lack control over their own earnings, which translates into less dietary agency and poor health outcomes.
Nutrition as Justice: Malnutrition is framed not just as a health issue, but a social justice issue driven by patriarchal household structures.
Why has POSHAN 2.0 failed to improve women’s nutrition significantly?
Underutilization of Allocated Funds: Despite a large budget, only about 69% of funds were used by December 2022, limiting the programme’s reach and effectiveness. Eg: ₹24,000 crore allocated in 2022-23, but nearly one-third remained unspent.
Rising Anaemia Rates Despite Investments:Anaemia prevalence among women increased from 53% to 57%between NFHS-4 and NFHS-5, showing no significant improvement. Eg: NFHS-5 data shows anaemia rates rose even after POSHAN 2.0’s interventions.
Focus on Awareness Over Actual Nutrition: The programme has raised awareness (Jan Andolan) but awareness alone cannot address the root causes of malnutrition such as poverty and food scarcity.
Ignoring Social and Economic Barriers: POSHAN 2.0 largely addresses food supply and supplementation but does not sufficiently tackle women’s economic dependence and decision-making power. Eg: 49% of women lack control over how their income is spent, limiting their ability to benefit from nutrition programmes.
How does women’s empowerment impact nutritional outcomes?
Improved Spending on Nutrition: When women control income, they prioritize food and health for themselves and their families, leading to better nutrition. Eg:Nobel laureate Esther Duflo found that women’s control over extra income increases spending on children’s nutrition.
Greater Decision-Making Power: Empowered women can make choices about their diet, healthcare, and food allocation, reducing malnutrition risks. Eg: NFHS-5 showed that women with decision-making power over finances had better nutritional status.
Increased Access to Employment and Income: Economic empowerment through stable jobs helps women afford nutritious food and healthcare. Eg: Women with even modest independent income were found less likely to be undernourished in low-income communities.
Enhanced Health Awareness and Education: Empowered women tend to have better knowledge of nutrition and health practices, improving family nutrition. Eg: Women participating in financial literacy and health workshops show better child feeding practices.
Reduced Gender-Based Nutritional Inequality: Empowerment challenges social norms that deprioritize women’s nutrition, leading to more equitable food distribution. Eg: Households where women contribute economically often have less gender disparity in food consumption.
How can inter-scheme convergence tackle gendered malnutrition?
Note: Inter-scheme convergence is the coordinated collaboration of multiple government programmes across sectors.
Integrated Service Delivery: Combining nutrition, health, and livelihood schemes ensures women receive comprehensive support addressing multiple malnutrition causes. Eg:Anganwadi centres providing food supplements along with skill training and job linkages.
Efficient Resource Utilization: Coordination between departments reduces duplication and optimizes use of funds for women’s nutrition and empowerment. Eg:Joint budgeting for POSHAN Abhiyaan and women’s employment schemes leads to better fund utilization.
Holistic Empowerment of Women: Linking nutrition programmes with economic and social empowerment schemes increases women’s ability to accessand afford nutritious food. Eg: Combining POSHAN 2.0 with financial literacy and credit schemes for women.
Targeted Interventions in High-Risk Areas: Collaborative planning allows focused efforts in districts with severe malnutrition, addressing structural and social barriers. Eg:Health, nutrition, and livelihood departments working together in tribal districts to improve women’s nutrition.
Multi-dimensional Monitoring and Evaluation: Integrated monitoring tracks progress on nutrition and women’s empowerment indicators simultaneously, improving accountability. Eg: Measuring both reduction in anaemia and increase in women’s decision-making power under joint schemes.
What steps can make women active agents in nutrition programmes? (Way forward)
Enhance Economic Empowerment: Provide women with access to skill training, income opportunities, and financial literacy so they can afford nutritious food and make independent decisions. Eg: Linking Anganwadi centres with local skill development and credit schemes for women.
Increase Decision-Making Power: Promote women’s participation in household and community decisions related to health, diet, and resource allocation. Eg: Community meetings where women lead discussions on nutrition and health interventions.
Strengthen Awareness and Capacity Building: Use nutrition programmes to conduct health education, nutritional counselling, and leadership training, empowering women as knowledge bearers and change-makers. Eg: Financial literacy workshops and health awareness sessions at POSHAN Abhiyaan centres.
Permanent Lok Adalats in as many as 16 districts of Rajasthan have ceased functioning owing to the non-extension of tenure of their presiding officers and members.
About Permanent Lok Adalats (PLAs)
Legal Basis: PLAs are statutory bodies established under Section 22-B of the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987.
Establishment: They were introduced in 2002 to offer speedy and affordable dispute resolution for public utility services.
Disputes Handled: PLAs resolve issues related to transport (air, road, water), postal, telecom, electricity, water supply, sanitation, healthcare, and insurance.
Composition: Each PLA has a Chairman (a current or retired District Judge or higher) and 2 members with experience in the relevant public utility sectors.
Functioning: Unlike regular Lok Adalats, PLAs operate on a continuous basis and are always available for dispute resolution.
Jurisdiction Limit: They can hear cases involving claims up to ₹1 crore but cannot take up non-compoundable criminal cases.
Unique Power: If conciliation fails, the PLA has the authority to adjudicate the dispute and issue a final and BINDING award, just like a civil court.
The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), in private collaboration, has successfully completed the restoration of Rajon ki Baoli, a 16th-century Lodi-era stepwell located in New Delhi.
About Rajon ki Baoli:
Location: Situated in Mehrauli Archaeological Park, Delhi, around 400 meters south of Adham Khan’s Tomb.
Build year: Built in 1506 CE by Daulat Khan Lodi, an official under Sikandar Lodi.
Name Meaning: “Rajon ki Baoli” means “Stepwell of the Masons”, referring to raj mistris, not royalty.
Structure: The stepwell is rectangular, covering 1,610 sq m, and is 13.4 meters deep.
Design: It is a 4-level structure, with only the topmost tier visible from ground level.
Architectural Features:
Includes verandas, arched corridors, 12-pillared arcades, and stucco medallions.
The complex also has a mosque, a tomb, and a chhatri (pavilion).
Purpose: Served as a water source andresting place and had social-religious utility.
About the Lodi Dynasty:
The Lodi Dynasty ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1451 to 1526.
Founder: Established by Bahlul Lodi, the first Afghan ruler of Delhi.
Territorial Control: Dominated Punjab, Jaunpur, Gwalior, and the Upper Ganga Valley.
Key Rulers:
Bahlul Lodi (1451–1489): Annexed Jaunpur and solidified Afghan influence in northern India.
Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517): Founded Agra, introduced agricultural reforms, standardised land with Gaz-i-Sikandari, and patronised literature and music. He imposed jizya and demolished temples in Mathura, reflecting intolerance.
Ibrahim Lodi (1517–1526): Lost the First Battle of Panipat to Babur, ending the dynasty and the Sultanate.
Successor: Their fall marked the shift from the Delhi Sultanate to the Mughal Empire in Indian history.
The Department of Posts has released a commemorative postage stamp to mark 125 years of the Kodaikanal Solar Observatory (KoSO)—one of India’s oldest and most significant astronomical research centres dedicated to studying the Sun.
About the Kodaikanal Solar Observatory (KoSO):
Founding: Established in the late 19th century, KoSO was established in 1899 after atmospheric surveys by Charles Michie Smith.
Location: It is located in Kodaikanal, Tamil Nadu, in the Palani Hills, chosen for its excellent sky conditions.
Early Observations: Initially focused on observing sunspots, solar prominences, and solar radiation.
Modern Equipment: Now equipped with the H-alpha telescope (for flares and prominences) and WARM (for high-resolution sunspot imaging).
Institutional Role: Became part of the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) in April 1971.
Scientific Importance: KoSO contributes to understanding the Sun’s effect on Earth’s climate and space weather.
Important Observations / Discoveries:
Evershed Effect (1909): Discovered by John Evershed, it was the first observation of radial gas outflows in sunspots, a key finding in solar physics.
Historic Solar Archive (1904–2017): Created one of the world’s longest continuous solar datasets.
Digitization: First Indian observatory to digitise solar data (since 1984); currently maintains a digital archive of 1.48 lakh images (~10 TB).
Wider Scientific Work: Extended research into cosmic rays, radio astronomy, ionospheric physics, and stellar astrophysics over the decades.
[UPSC 2016] Discuss India’s achievements in the field of Space Science and Technology. How the application of this technology has helped India in its socio-economic development?
May 16 is observed annually as Sikkim Day, marking the historic occasion in 1975 when the Kingdom of Sikkim formally became a state of India.
About the Kingdom of Sikkim
Foundation: The Kingdom of Sikkim was established in 1642, when three Tibetan lamas crowned Phuntsong Namgyal as the first Chogyal (monarch).
Namgyal dynasty: It ruled Sikkim for 333 years, maintaining a Buddhist monarchy until 1975.
Treaty of Tumlong (1861): It made Sikkim a British protectorate, where the Chogyals retained internal authority while the British handled external affairs.
Other key treaties shaping Sikkim’s status: These included the Treaty of Titaliya (1817), Calcutta Convention (1890), and Lhasa Convention (1904), which defined borders and reaffirmed British influence.
How did Sikkim join India?
Post-1947 Status: After India’s independence, Sikkim did not join India like other princely states, due to its unique British treaty status.
Nehru’s Approach: While Sardar Patel and B.N. Rau wanted Sikkim to accede, Jawaharlal Nehru opted for a Standstill Agreement to preserve the status quo.
Indo-Sikkim Treaty of 1950: This treaty made Sikkim an Indian protectorate, with India managing defence, foreign affairs, and communications.
Role of Sikkim National Congress: Led by Kazi Dorji, the SNC became the key pro-democracy and pro-merger party.
1973 Agreement: After widespread protests, a tripartite agreement was signed between the Chogyal, the Government of India, and the Sikkimese parties.
Democratic Transition: In 1974, elections were held, and a new constitution reduced the monarch’s powers.
Referendum of 1975: In April 1975, over 97% of voters supported abolishing the monarchy and merging with India.
Merger with India: In May 1975, the 36th Constitutional Amendment was passed, and Sikkim became the 22nd state of India. It added Article 371F to provide special provisions for the state of Sikkim.
Back2Basics: Article 371F of the Indian Constitution
Constitutional Origin: Added by the 36th Amendment Act (1975) when Sikkim became the 22nd state of India.
Objective: Protects Sikkim’s unique history, culture, and legal system during integration.
Legislative Assembly: Sikkim must have at least 30 MLAs, fewer than other states under Article 170.
Parliamentary Representation: Sikkim has 1 Lok Sabha and 1 Rajya Sabha seat, with the Assembly electing the MP.
Governor’s Role: Governor holds special responsibility for peace, equity, and development.
Pre-Merger Laws: Existing laws and judgments before 1975 remain valid unless changed by Parliament.
Presidential Powers: President can modify laws and extend central laws to Sikkim within two years post-merger.
Land and Job Rights: Only 1961-registered Sikkimese can own land or hold state government jobs.
Tax Exemption: Original Sikkimese were exempt from income tax.
Recent Controversy: The Finance Bill, 2023 expanded the term “Sikkimese”, raising concerns over erosion of indigenous rights.
[UPSC 2007] Which one of the following is the correct chronological order of the formation as full States of the Indian Union?
Recently, in Majitha, Amritsar district of Punjab, 21 people aged between 26 and 80 died and 10 others were critically hospitalised after allegedly drinking spurious liquor.
Note:Hooch tragediesrefer to incidents where people die or fall seriously ill after consuming illicit or spurious liquor.
What systemic issues contribute to recurring hooch tragedies in India?
Poverty and Social Vulnerability: Poor, daily wage earners often turn to cheap illicit liquor as a coping mechanism. Eg: Victims in the 2023 Punjab hooch tragedy were mostly from low-income backgrounds.
Easy Availability and Misuse of Methanol: Methanol, an industrial chemical, is cheap, easily pilfered, and often used in spurious liquor despite being highly toxic. Eg: Bootleggers dilute methanol to create hooch, as seen in several mass poisoning incidents.
Weak Regulatory Oversight and State Capacity: Lax control over methanol transport and lack of inter-state coordination enable theft and illegal use. Eg: No central framework exists to monitor methanol movement, despite repeated incidents.
Corruption and Nexus Among Stakeholders: A deep-rooted nexus between bootleggers, local politicians, and police often shields the culprits. Eg: In many hooch cases, police are suspended post-tragedy, but no long-term accountability follows.
Ineffective Legal Enforcement: Laws like the Poison Act are rarely used, and convictions are rare due to weak evidence or delayed trials. Eg: In the 2015 Malvani case, only 4 out of 14 accused were convicted after 9 years.
Who is primarily accountable for spurious liquor deaths?
Bootleggers and Illicit Manufacturers: They produce and distribute toxic brews, often using dangerous chemicals like methanol for profit. Eg: In the 2023 Punjab hooch case, bootleggers used methanol-laced liquor that killed at least 23 people.
Corrupt Law Enforcement Agencies: Police often ignore illegal activities due to bribes or political pressure, enabling the supply chain to flourish. Eg: After the Punjab incident, several police officers were suspended for negligence.
Regulatory Authorities and State Governments: Weak oversight of methanol distribution, lack of tracking mechanisms, and poor implementation of prohibition laws lead to repeated failures. Eg: States lack robust frameworks to monitor industrial alcohol movement, allowing diversion.
Local Politicians and Political Nexus: Some politicians support or protect bootleggers for electoral or financial gains, compromising public safety.
What are the legislations to regulate spurious liquor or illicit alcohol in India?
The Poisons Act, 1919: Regulates the manufacture, possession, sale, and transport of poisonous substances like methanol, which is often diverted to make illicit liquor. Eg: Methanol is classified as a Class B poison under this Act, but its diversion is a key issue in hooch tragedies.
The Essential Commodities Act, 1955: Controls the production and distribution of essential goods, including alcohol ingredients, to prevent hoarding and illegal diversion. Eg: Used to regulate methanol supply and prevent pilferage that fuels illicit liquor trade.
Why has the legal framework failed to ensure convictions in illicit liquor cases?
Weak Application of Existing Laws: Cases are often booked under prohibition laws or general criminal provisions, but not under stronger laws like the Poison Act or organized crime statutes, leading to weaker prosecution. Eg: In the 2015 Malvani hooch tragedy (Mumbai), 105 people died, but the court acquitted 10 out of 14 accusedafter 9 years; none was convicted under the Poison Act.
Poor Evidence Collection and Investigation: Police often fail to collect scientific and documentary evidence, link the entire supply chain, or prove intent and causation beyond reasonable doubt. Eg: In multiple cases, including the 2023 Bihar hooch incident, forensic reports were delayed or inconclusive, weakening the case in court.
Lack of Inter-State Regulatory Mechanism for Methanol: Methanol, used industrially, is not illegal in itself. Without a centralised tracking system, tracing its diversion becomes difficult, weakening the case against suppliers. Eg: Bootleggers source methanol from authorised dealers across states, making it hard to fix legal liability on any single actor.
What policy measures can prevent methanol diversion into the illicit liquor trade? (Way forward)
Centralised Methanol Monitoring Framework: Establish a nationwide tracking system for methanol production, transport, and sale using barcoding or GPS tracking. Eg: Like the track-and-trace system for pharmaceutical drugs, methanol consignments can be monitored to prevent theft or leakage.
Tighter Regulation and Licensing of Dealers: Enforce strict licensing norms for methanol dealers with regular audits and surprise inspections; cancel licences for non-compliance. Eg: Some states classify methanol as a Class B poison and regulate it under the Poison Act.
Criminal Liability for Supply Chain Negligence: Amend laws to hold manufacturers and transporters accountable for diversion due to negligence or collusion, with higher penalties and jail terms. Eg: In the Punjab hooch tragedy (2020), weak action against upstream suppliers limited accountability—stronger legal deterrents can close such gaps.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] Explain how narco-terrorism has emerged as a serious threat across the country. Suggest suitable measures to counter narco- terrorism.
Linkage: Criminal activities linked to trafficking dangerous substances for profit and the security threats they pose, similar in nature to the illicit methanol trade described in the article.
On April 22, a terrorist attack in Pahalgam, Kashmir, killed 26 civilians. In response, the Indian government took several diplomatic steps, including suspending the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT).
Why is the Indus Waters Treaty crucial for India-Pakistan ties?
Framework for Water Sharing: The IWT provides a clear, legally binding agreement on how the Indus River and its tributaries are shared, reducing the risk of water conflicts between India and Pakistan. Eg: India controls the eastern rivers (Ravi, Beas, Sutlej), while Pakistan manages the western rivers (Indus, Jhelum, Chenab), helping avoid disputes over water access.
Endurance Amid Political Tensions: Despite wars and terrorist attacks (e.g., 2008 Mumbai attacks, 2019 Pulwama attack), the treaty has endured for over six decades, maintaining a vital channel of cooperation between two hostile neighbors. Eg: Even after the 2019 Pulwama terror attack, the treaty remained a key framework for managing shared water resources.
Diplomatic Leverage and Stability: The treaty serves as a strategic tool in diplomatic relations, with India occasionally using it as leverage while ensuring continued water flow, preventing escalation into broader conflict. Eg: After the 2023 Pahalgam attack, India announced suspension of some treaty provisions as a diplomatic response.
How does climate change affect the Indus Basin?
Glacial Melt and Water Flow Variability: The Indus Basin depends heavily on glacier-fed rivers, with about 80% of water coming from glacial melt. Climate change accelerates glacier melting, causing short-term floods and long-term water shortages during dry seasons.
Rising Water Demand and Scarcity: Growing population and agricultural needs increase pressure on limited water resources, worsening water scarcity in the basin, especially in Pakistan, where water availability has dropped below critical levels. Eg: Irrigation losses in Pakistan exceed 50% in some areas, threatening food security.
Impact on Agriculture and Livelihoods: Reduced and unpredictable water flow due to climate change affects crop yields and fisheries, destabilizing rural economies dependent on the Indus Basin.
How did colonial irrigation projects influence post-independence water disputes?
Extensive Canal Systems Built by British: The British developed large canal networks for irrigation, creating shared water infrastructure across regions. Eg: The 1915 Triple Canal Project linked major tributaries, affecting river flows between future India and Pakistan.
Altered Natural River Flow: British dams and barrages controlled floods and irrigation but changed river courses, leading to downstream access issues. Eg: Barrages on the Indus and its tributaries shifted water availability patterns.
No Formal Water Sharing Post-Partition: At independence, India and Pakistan inherited interconnected irrigation but lacked agreements on water distribution. Eg: This led to conflicts over the use of eastern and western rivers after 1947.
Regional Water Imbalances: Colonial irrigation prioritized certain areas, creating uneven water distribution that fueled disputes. Eg:Punjab’s canal systems served both countries but became points of contention.
What lessons can India draw from other river treaties? (Way forward)
Promote Cooperative Water Management: Successful treaties often emphasize joint management and data sharing to build trust and avoid conflicts. Eg: The Mekong River Commission involves multiple countries collaborating on water usage and flood control.
Include Climate Change Adaptation: Modern treaties factor in environmental changes and sustainable usage to address future water challenges. Eg: The Nile Basin Initiative incorporates climate resilience strategies for water-sharing among East African nations.
Establish Dispute Resolution Mechanisms: Effective treaties have clear, impartial conflict resolution processes to handle disagreements peacefully. Eg: The Danube River Protection Convention includes mechanisms for arbitration and mediation among European countries.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2020] In what way have the science-based technologies triggered off striking changes in agriculture?
Linkage: Genome editing is a science-based technology that represents a significant advancement capable of triggering changes in agriculture by developing improved crop varieties.
[UPSC 2022] The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 remains only a legal document without intense sensitisation of government functionaries and citizens regarding disability. Comment.
Linkage: Welfare schemes for vulnerable sections of the population by the Centre and States and the performance of these schemes; mechanisms, laws, institutions and Bodies constituted for the protection and betterment of these vulnerable sections.
Mentor’s Comment: On 30 April, 2025, the Supreme Court’s directive to revise digital KYC norms to ensure accessibility for persons with disabilities (PwDs), recognizing digital access as a fundamental right under Article 21. It highlights legal safeguards like the RPwD Act 2016, challenges faced by PwDs in current KYC processes, and the Court’s emphasis on inclusive, accessible digital infrastructure for marginalized groups.
Today’s editorial discusses the Supreme Court’s order to update digital KYC rules to make them accessible for persons with disabilities (PwDs). This topic is useful for GS Paper II (covering governance, the Supreme Court’s role, and issues related to vulnerable groups like PwDs).
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Recently, the Supreme Court of India directed the revision of digital Know Your Customer (KYC) norms to ensure they are accessible to persons with disabilities (PwDs), especially the visually impaired.
What KYC changes did the Supreme Court direct for PwDs?
Mandated Accessible Digital KYC Processes: KYC procedures must include accessible design features like screen-reader compatibility, audio cues, and simplified verification steps.
Alternative Identity Verification Methods: KYC systems must allow thumb impressions, signatures in accessible formats, and alternative ways to verify identity without facial recognition or selfies. Eg: An acid attack survivor unable to use facial recognition can verify their identity using thumb impression linked with Aadhaar and OTP verification.
Uniform Accessibility Standards Across Institutions: All regulated entities (banks, telecom, SEBI, etc.) must follow a standardized, inclusive KYC frameworkrather than creating their own tests Eg: Every bank and mobile provider must adopt unified, accessible KYC apps that meet 2021 and 2022 ICT Accessibility Standards, ensuring consistency and inclusion.
Which laws protect the rights of PwDs in India?
Constitution provision: Guarantees equality, dignity, and non-discrimination through the Preamble, Fundamental Rights(Articles 14, 15, 21), and Directive Principles (Article 38). Eg: Under Article 21, the Supreme Court reinterpreted the right to life to include digital access for PwDs.
Rights of Persons with Disabilities (RPwD) Act, 2016: Adopts a social-barrier model of disability and mandates measures for accessibility, inclusion, and equal opportunity. Eg: Section 42 requires the government to ensure accessible electronic media, including sign-language, audio descriptions, and captions.
UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD): India is a signatory and is obligated to promote, protect, and ensure full human rights and freedoms of PwDs. Eg: The RPwD Act, 2016 was enacted to give domestic effect to the UNCRPD’s principles like accessibility, dignity, and non-discrimination.
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Accessibility Standards (2021, 2022): Prescribe technical standards for websites, apps, and digital services to be screen-reader friendly, with audio/video guidance. Eg: Despite these standards, most KYC platforms lack audio prompts or camera alignment assistance, which the SC directed to be rectified.
Why do banks and other financial and government institutions mandate collecting KYC details?
Ensures Security: KYC helps identify and verify customers, reducing risks of money laundering, fraud, and terrorism financing. Eg: Under the Prevention of Money-laundering Act, 2002, banks are required to verify identities and report suspicious transactions to the Financial Intelligence Unit.
Availing Financial and Telecom Services: KYC is a regulatory requirement to access services like bank accounts, SIM cards, demat accounts, insurance, and pension schemes. Eg: A person must complete KYC to open a bank account or activate a mobile number.
Enables Access to welfare schemes: Digital KYC links individuals to Aadhaar-based Direct Benefit Transfers (DBTs), ensuring targeted delivery of welfare schemes. Eg: Students must complete e-KYC to receive national scholarshcips or access Aadhaar-linked subsidieslike LPG or pensions.
How do current KYC methods exclude PwDs?
Visual Verification Disadvantage: Steps like reading flashing codes, aligning for selfies, or signing on paper are inaccessible to those with visual impairments or disfigurements. Eg: A blind user cannot complete video-KYC if the app lacks screen-reader prompts or audio guidance for camera positioning.
Lack of Alternative Biometric Methods: Common alternatives like thumb impressions are not accepted as valid signatures, and PAN cards aren’t issued with them. Eg: A visually impaired person using thumbprint verification may be denied KYC approval due to lack of signature or photo verification.
Non-Compliant Digital Infrastructure: Most KYC apps and portals violate ICT Accessibility Standards by lacking features like text-to-speech, audio cues, or accessible form inputs. Eg: A KYC website without voice feedback or keyboard navigation makes it impossible for a person using assistive tech to complete the process independently.
Why did the SC link digital access to Article 21?
Digital Access is Integral to the Right to Life and Dignity: The Court held that in today’s digital era, access to essential services through digital means is part of living with dignity and autonomy. Eg: Denying blind users the ability to complete KYC digitally affects their right to life under Article 21 by limiting access to banking or welfare services.
Ensures Substantive Equality: The Court emphasized substantive equality, noting that equality is not just about treating everyone the same, but removing barriers for the disadvantaged. Eg: People with visual impairments face unique hurdles with video-KYC, which violates their equal access to services guaranteed under Articles 14 and 21.
Bridges the Digital Divide: The judgment recognized that digital exclusion impacts not just PwDs, but also rural citizens, elderly people, and linguistic minorities, deepening socio-economic inequality. Eg: During COVID-19, the Court earlier ruled that digital vaccine portals must be accessible, reinforcing the idea that public digital infrastructure must be inclusive.
Way forward:
Adopt Inclusive Digital Design Standards: Ensure all KYC platforms follow universal design principles with features like screen-readers, voice prompts, and alternative authentication methods.
Mandate Regulatory Oversight and ComplianceRBI, SEBI, and DoT must monitor and enforce accessibility standards across all regulated entities to guarantee equal digital access for PwDs.
