In response to the Pahalgam Terror Attack, India has officially announced the suspension of the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) with Pakistan.
About the Indus Water Treaty (IWT)
IWT was signed between India and Pakistan on September 19, 1960, with mediation from the World Bank.
The treaty allocates the Western rivers (Indus, Chenab, and Jhelum) to Pakistan, and the Eastern rivers (Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej) to India.
Approximately 80% of the water is allocated to Pakistan, with 20% to India.
The Permanent Indus Commission was established to facilitate communication and dispute resolution.
The treaty includes a three-step process for resolving disputes, which involves the Permanent Indus Commission, Neutral Experts (appointed by World Bank), and a Court of Arbitration if needed.
Implications of Suspension:
India’s Opportunities:
Though not immediately, but India can now control the water flow from the Indus River system, allowing it to divert, stop, or alter the flow of water.
India can expand hydroelectric projects on the Western rivers, such as the Kishanganga and Ratle Hydroelectric Projects, with more projects under scrutiny.
Impact on Pakistan:
Agriculture: Pakistan’s agricultural sector heavily depends on the Indus River, and any disruption could cause food insecurity and economic distress for millions of farmers.
Power Supply: Pakistan’s hydroelectric power generation depends on the water flow, with Tarbela Dam (on the Indus River) and Mangla Dam (on the Jhelum River) facing reduced water supplies, leading to electricity shortages.
Alternatives for Pakistan:
No Legal Exit: No legal exit clause in the treaty; also, India cannot unilaterally suspend it.
Dispute Resolution: Pakistan can approach the Permanent Indus Commission, request Neutral Experts, or escalate to the World Bank’s Court of Arbitration.
International Diplomacy: Pakistan may seek diplomatic solutions through international forums, including leveraging support from other nations.
[UPSC 2009] Consider the following statements:
1. The Baglihar Power Project had been constructed within the parameters of the Indus Water Treaty.
2. The project was completely built by the Union Government with loans from Japan and the World Bank.
Options: (a) 1 only * (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
[UPSC 2021] With reference to the Indus River system, among the following four rivers, one of them joins the Indus directly:
Options: (a) Chenab (b) Jhelum (c) Ravi (d) Sutlej
Two decades since the demolition of Bamiyan Buddha, the Afghan Taliban are now convinced to restore it.
AboutBamiyan Buddha:
The Bamiyan Buddhas were located in the Bamiyan Valley, Afghanistan, about 130 km northwest of Kabul.
The Western Buddha(Salsal) stood 55 meters tall, and the Eastern Buddha(Shah Mama) stood 38 meters tall, making them two of the largest standing Buddha statues in the world before their destruction.
Construction:
Built around 600 CE during the rule of the Hephthalites.
Carved directly into sandstone cliffs with features made from mud and straw, and painted with bright colors, including carmine red for the larger Buddha.
The style blends Greco-Buddhist art, Sasanian Persia, and Byzantine Empire influences.
Historical Significance:
Represented Vairocana and Sakyamuni (Gautama Buddha).
Served as a major Buddhist religious centre along the Silk Road, hosting monasteries and playing a crucial role in religion, philosophy, and art.
Survived invasions, including by Genghis Khan (1221 AD) and Aurangzeb (17th Century).
In 2001, the Taliban destroyed the statues. The Buddhas had previously survived multiple attacks.
The site is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site due to its immense historical, religious, and cultural significance.
[UPSC 2014] Which of the following Kingdoms were associated with the life of the Buddha?
1. Avanti 2. Gandhara 3. Kosala 4. Magadha
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 and 4 only (c) 3 and 4 only * (d) 1, 3 and 4 only
India has introduced Akshvi, a unique e-digital wallet aimed at assisting in disaster relief and improving the accuracy of loss reporting.
About Akshvi: The E-Digital Wallet for Disasters
Akshvi (Aapda Kshati Vivaran) is a unique e-digital wallet developed by SEEDS India to assist disaster-stricken communities in India.
The platform allows people to self-report economic and non-economic losses during climate-induced events.
It bridges the data gap in disaster reporting and enhancing relief distribution and climate resilience.
Key Features of Akshvi:
Self-Reporting Mechanism: It enables affected communities to log their losses during disasters such as floods, droughts, heatwaves, and landslides, ensuring accurate and timely assessments.
Localized Data Collection: The platform collects hyperlocal data, which is vital for tailoring disaster management strategies and relief efforts to the specific needs of affected communities.
User-Friendly Interface:
IVRS: Allows voice recording of losses.
WhatsApp Chatbot: For tech-savvy users to log data.
Assisted Data Entry: Available for those needing help with information entry.
Traceability: The platform tracks the progress of relief, ensuring that aid reaches the affected households transparently.
Integration with Government Schemes: Akshvi’s data links to social welfare schemes and index-based insurance programs, improving disaster response efforts.
[UPSC 2004] In which one of the following countries did hundreds of people die in 2004 due to Tropical Storm Jeanne?
Options: (a) Colombia (b) Haiti (c) Sudan (d) Ghana
A recent report by the Central Zoo Authority (CZA), highlights the absence of any breeding programme for musk deer.
About Musk Deer:
The Himalayan Musk Deer (Moschus leucogaster) is an endangered species native to the Himalayas, found in India, Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan, and China.
It inhabits altitudes of 2,200 to 4,300 meters, primarily in alpine forests and scrublands.
Behaviour: Solitary, nocturnal, and territorial. Males have long, curved canine teeth and a musk gland, which is highly valued and targeted by poachers.
It plays a key role in seed dispersal, helping maintain the balance of the alpine ecosystem.
Threats: Poaching for their musk glands, habitat loss from deforestation, and genetic issues due to fragmented populations.
Conservation Initiatives:
Protection Status:
It is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List.
It is listed under Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, offering the highest protection under Indian law.
Protected Areas:
Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary: Established in 1972, covering 975 km² in the western Himalayas, crucial for musk deer conservation.
Askot Musk Deer Sanctuary: Located in Uttarakhand, dedicated specifically to musk deer conservation.
Himalayan Musk Project (1982): Aimed at captive breeding within Kedarnath Sanctuary but faced setbacks due to disease, snake bites, and poor survival rates. The project was shut down in 2006.
[UPSC 2020] Which of the following are the most likely places to find the musk deer in its natural habitat?
1. Askot Wildlife Sanctuary
2. Gangotri National Park
3. Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary
4. Manas National Park
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1 and 4 only
New research by CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad suggest that lipids (along with DNA), particularly in mitochondrial membranes, are not just structural elements but play an integral role in the function and evolution of proteins.
About Lipids and RC1 in Cells:
Lipids:
Lipids, including fats, phospholipids, and sterols, make up to 30%of the dry weight of cells.
They are crucial for membrane integrity and various biological processes.
They vary in fatty acid composition and length, influenced by genetics, diet, and environmental factors.
They form a bilayer in membranes, with hydrophilic heads facing outward and hydrophobic tails inward, providing stability and enabling protein function.
Role of Lipids in Cells:
Lipids form the bilayer, providing flexibility and stability for membrane proteins that perform functions like receptor binding and ion channelling.
They like cardiolipin stabilize RC1 and other respiratory complexes, aiding energy production.
RC1 (Respiratory Complex 1):
RC1 is a protein complex in the mitochondrial membrane, crucial for cellular respiration and energy production.
It is composed of 44 proteins, some synthesized in the cytoplasm and others in mitochondria.
Mutations in RC1 lead to diseases due to its vital role in respiration.
Lipid-Protein Co-evolution as per new Research:
New research highlights the co-evolution of proteins and lipids, especially in mitochondrial membranes, where proteins interact with specific lipids from their own kingdom (plant or animal).
Plant lipids, richer in polyunsaturated fatty acids, are more flexible, aiding stress resistance, while animal lipids evolve differently to meet their needs.
Lipid-protein co-evolution adds complexity to cellular evolution, with implications for human health and disease treatment.
[UPSC 2001] Which of the following cell organelles play the most significant role in protein synthesis?
Options: (a) Lysosome and Centrosome (b) Endoplasmic reticulum and Ribosome* (c) Golgi apparatus and Mitochondria (d) Lysosome and Mitochondria
Every aspirant dreams of cracking UPSC in their very first attempt. But between planning and execution, most end up overwhelmed, distracted, or burnt out. What if you could hear directly from someone who not only cleared the exam but secured AIR 13, all while pursuing a PhD and managing responsibilities on the ground?
Meet Hemant Mishra, a geography postgraduate from JNU, currently pursuing his PhD from Jamia Millia Islamia. He’s also a NET JRF qualifier, and before making it to the top ranks in UPSC 2024, he served as a DYSP in UP. Today, at just 27 years old, he is posted as SDM in Mirzapur, bringing together academic excellence and real-world administrative experience.
In this session, Hemant Sir will talk about the things most webinars don’t—
how to build a focused, fail proof strategy even when you’re juggling multiple responsibilities.
He’ll share how he chose his optional, balanced current affairs with static subjects
Staying consistent through self-doubt and setbacks.
Most importantly, he’ll share what made the real difference: mindset, planning, and micro adjustments.
Whether you’re just beginning your UPSC journey or already on your way, this session will help you reframe how you look at the exam not as a burden, but as a process you can take control of.
It will be a 45 minute webinar, post which we will open up the floor for all kinds of queries which a beginner must have. No questions are taboo and Hemant Sir is known to be patiently solving all your doubts.
Join us for a Zoom session on 24th April 2025 at 7:00 p.m. This session is a must-attend for you If you are attempting UPSC for the first time or have attempted earlier and now preparing for next year, then it is going to be a valuable session for you too.
See you in the session”
Register for the session for a focussed UPSC 2026 Prep
(Don’t wait—the next webinar won’t be until May 25)
These masterclasses are packed with value. They are conducted in private with a closed community. We rarely open these webinars for everyone for free. This time we are keeping it for 300 seats only.
[UPSC 2018] Why is India taking keen interest in resources of Arctic Region?
Linakge: India’s interest in the Arctic’s resources, which is a central theme in the Article. This article highlights the Arctic as a “critical energy source for the Global South” and mentions India’s potential stake in the “massive resources” of the region.
Mentor’s Comment: Global trade is shifting due to U.S. pressures and climate change, prompting countries to explore new supply chains and routes. The Arctic, while warning of a climate crisis, offers major geopolitical and economic potential. As new trade paths open, India must ensure it has a role in future Arctic opportunities without harming the fragile environment.
Today’s editorial highlights why the Arctic region matters for the world and India. This topic is useful for GS Paper 2 (international relations) and GS Paper 3 (environment and economy) in the mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
India should have a voice in the future economic opportunities of the Arctic, without rushing to exploit its resources recklessly.
What is the Northern Sea Route (NSR)?
The Northern Sea Route (NSR) is a new Arctic sea route connecting the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean, running along the northern coast of Russia.
It provides the shortest maritime route between Europe and Asia, significantly reducing shipping distances. Eg: Shipping from Rotterdam to Shanghai via the NSR cuts the journey by around 30%, reducing travel time by approximately 10 days.
How could it transform global trade?
Reduced Freight Costs: By providing a more direct and shorter route, the NSR can substantially lower shipping costs, as vessels spend less time on the water and consume less fuel. Eg: The cost savings from the reduced travel time and fuel consumption can incentivize global shipping companies to shift their operations to the NSR, especially for bulk goods and high-value cargo.
Expedited Global Trade: The NSR could drastically speed up the flow of goods, particularly for time-sensitive cargo like electronics, automotive parts, and perishable goods, thus improving global trade efficiency. Eg: In 2018, a Chinese cargo ship made a successful voyage through the NSR, delivering goods from China to Europe in a record time of 18 days, compared to the traditional 40+ days via the Suez Canal.
Opening New Markets: The NSR could lead to the development of new ports and shipping routes in the Arctic, creating economic opportunities for the countries surrounding the region. It can also open up access to new markets that were previously difficult to reach. Eg: As traffic on the NSR increases, ports like Murmansk in Russia and Pevek in the Arctic will see growth, transforming them into significant maritime hubs.
Why is the Arctic region becoming geopolitically and economically important for India?
New Trade Routes: The Northern Sea Route (NSR) opens shorter, more efficient shipping lanes between Europe and Asia, benefiting India’s trade by reducing shipping times and costs. Eg: The NSR offers India quicker access to European markets, enhancing trade competitiveness.
Energy Resources: The Arctic region holds vast untapped oil and natural gas reserves, offering India potential access to energy resources vital for its growing needs. Eg: Arctic exploration could help diversify India’s energy sources, ensuring a more secure supply.
Climate Research: The Arctic’s rapid changes influence global climate patterns, impacting India’s monsoon and agricultural productivity. Eg: Research on the Arctic’s climate helps India prepare for shifts in its monsoon patterns and protect food security.
Geopolitical Influence: India’s involvement in Arctic governance could strengthen its global position and foster partnerships with key nations like Russia and the U.S. Eg: By engaging in Arctic policy, India enhances its diplomatic and strategic ties with major global players.
Maritime Security: India’s access to the Arctic region can improve its maritime security and help protect vital trade routes. Eg: Strengthening Arctic partnerships can ensure India’s strategic interests in the region are safeguarded.
When did India formalise its Arctic policy, and what are its key goals?
Focus Area
Key Objectives
Scientific Research and Climate Understanding
Enhance scientific knowledge about the Arctic’s effect on global climate, especially the Indian monsoon and agriculture. Strengthen research stations like Himadri and use space technology for Arctic studies.
Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development
Promote protection of the Arctic environment and support sustainable development. Encourage responsible use of resources and partner with Arctic nations on green energy.
Enhanced International Cooperation and Capacity Building
Actively participate in Arctic governance (e.g., Arctic Council), improve India’s expertise in Arctic studies, and collaborate on digital connectivity and indigenous knowledge exchange.
Who are India’s potential strategic partners in the Arctic region?
Russia: India sees Russia as a key partner in the Arctic due to its extensive Arctic coastline and expertise in Arctic navigation. The two countries have established a working group under the bilateral intergovernmental commission to explore opportunities in Arctic trade routes like the Northern Sea Route (NSR) and potential joint ventures. Eg, the Chennai-Vladivostok Maritime Corridor is seen as a bridge to the NSR.
Japan and South Korea: Japan and South Korea are also critical partners due to shared concerns over China’s increasing influence in the Arctic. These nations and India aim to promote a more inclusive Arctic Council and ensure equitable access to Arctic resources, countering Chinese dominance in the region.
What are the challenges involved?
Harsh Environmental Conditions: The Arctic’s extreme weather and icy waters present significant challenges for navigation and shipping. India will need to invest heavily in specialised ice-breaking fleets and infrastructure to ensure safe and efficient passage along the Northern Sea Route (NSR). Eg, the need for shipbuilding suited to Arctic conditions was highlighted in India’s 2025-26 Budget.
Geopolitical Tensions: The Arctic region is becoming a battleground for global powers, with competing interests between the U.S., Russia, and China. India faces the dilemma of balancing relations with both Russia and the Western bloc while ensuring its interests in Arctic trade routes and resources. Eg, supporting Russia’s Arctic ambitions could align India with China’s Polar Silk Road, creating a potential conflict with U.S. interests.
Environmental Impact and Climate Change: Exploiting Arctic resources poses risks to the fragile ecosystem, and climate change further exacerbates these concerns. India must balance its commercial interests with environmental responsibility, ensuring that Arctic exploration does not contribute to further ecological degradation. Eg, global temperatures breaching 1.5°C in 2024 highlight the urgency of sustainable development in the Arctic.
How should India balance environmental concerns with commercial interests in the Arctic? (Way forward)
Sustainable Resource Management: India should advocate for responsible exploration and use of Arctic resources, ensuring that commercial activities do not harm the fragile environment. This includes supporting international regulations on sustainable practices and climate-resilient policies. Eg, India’s engagement in the Arctic Council can help influence global guidelines for Arctic resource extraction, focusing on minimal environmental disruption.
Collaborative Efforts with Like-minded Nations: India should collaborate with countries that share its concerns about environmental protection, such as Japan and South Korea, to promote sustainable Arctic governance. By forging partnerships focused on environmental preservation and responsible trade, India can secure both economic opportunities and environmental integrity. Eg, India, Japan, and South Korea have common interests in mitigating Chinese influence in Arctic policies, emphasising eco-friendly development.
The Election Commission of India (ECI) is again trying to link Aadhaar with voter ID, claiming it will help remove fake voters, clean up the voter list, and make elections more fair. However, this move could put people’s right to vote at risk.
Why is Aadhaar-Voter ID linkage seen as a threat to voting rights?
Risk of Mass Disenfranchisement: Linking Aadhaar with voter ID can lead to the wrongful deletion of genuine voters from electoral rolls due to data mismatches or errors in the Aadhaar database. Eg: In 2015, during the National Electoral Roll Purification and Authentication Programme, over 55 lakh voters were arbitrarily removed in Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, causing many to discover their names missing only on election day.
Violation of the Right to Privacy and Autonomy: The linkage forces citizens to part with their Aadhaar information, effectively making a voluntary scheme coercive. It exposes citizens to data misuse and profiling by political actors. Eg: Form 6B requires Aadhaar submission or a declaration of non-possession, with no real opt-out, pressuring citizens to comply.
Disproportionate Impact on Vulnerable Groups: Groups like the elderly, disabled, migrant workers, and rural residents face practical challenges in appearing before Electoral Officers to justify not having Aadhaar, putting their right to vote at risk. Eg: The proposed requirement for in-person appearance imposes an unreasonable burden, especially for people in remote or underserved areas.
How does the linkage affect vulnerable groups?
Imposes Unreasonable Physical Burden: The requirement for in-person appearances before Electoral Registration Officers disproportionately affects individuals who may not be able to travel easily. Eg: Elderly citizens or persons with disabilities may find it extremely difficult to justify their non-submission of Aadhaar physically, leading to potential exclusion from the voter list.
Excludes Migrants and Remote Populations: Migrant workers and people living in remote or underdeveloped regions may not have updated documents or easy access to Aadhaar centers, making compliance difficult. Eg: Migrant laborers, often on the move, may not have consistent records, leading to their disenfranchisement due to Aadhaar mismatches or absence.
Leads to Arbitrary Deletions from Electoral Rolls: Errors in Aadhaar data or failure to link properly can result in the deletion of legitimate voters, especially those lacking digital literacy or assistance. Eg: During the 2015 Aadhaar-linking exercise, many daily wage workers and marginalized citizens in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana found their names deleted without prior notice.
Which past events highlight the risks of this linkage?
2015 Deletions under National Electoral Roll Purification and Authentication Programme (NERPAP): The Election Commission attempted Aadhaar-voter ID linkage in 2015, leading to large-scale deletion of genuine voters due to data mismatches. Eg: In Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, over 55 lakh voters were removed from rolls. Many citizens discovered this only on polling day, causing mass disenfranchisement.
Supreme Court Stay in August 2015: Following the backlash from the 2015 deletions, the Supreme Court stayed the Aadhaar-voter ID linkage to prevent further voter exclusion. Eg: The Court’s order halted the programme, citing privacy concerns and lack of legal backing, highlighting the constitutional risks involved.
CAG Report on Aadhaar Database Flaws (2021): The Comptroller and Auditor General found serious flaws in the Aadhaar system, including duplications and unverifiable residency, raising concerns about its suitability for electoral verification. Eg: The CAG audit revealed that 4.75 lakh Aadhaar numbers were cancelled due to errors and duplication, showing how flawed data could wrongly affect voter rolls.
Way forward:
Traditional Voter Verification Methods: Instead of relying on Aadhaar, the ECI should strengthen manual verification systems. Eg: Door-to-door verification by Booth Level Officers (BLOs) and in-person checks help maintain accuracy and uphold voter rights without risking exclusions.
Independent Audits and Social Oversight: Introducing social audits and independent reviews of electoral rolls can enhance transparency and trust in the system. Eg: Public grievance redressal mechanisms and independent monitoring can prevent politically motivated manipulation and ensure fairness.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] Examine the need for electoral reforms as suggested by various committees with particular reference to “one nation-one election” principle.
Linakege: “one nation-one election,” it falls under the broader theme of electoral reforms. The article discusses a specific electoral reform, the Aadhaar-voter ID linkage, and argues that it has negative consequences for the right to vote. Therefore, this PYQ, concerning the need for and nature of electoral reforms, is relevant as the Aadhaar linking initiative can be seen as a debated electoral reform with potential risks to the franchise.
According to the India Meteorological Department’s first forecast for 2025, the country may receive around 105% of the average rainfall, with a possible variation of 5% more or less.
What is the India Meteorological Department’s (IMD) forecast for the 2025 monsoon?
Above Normal Rainfall Predicted: IMD forecasts 105% of the Long Period Average (LPA) rainfall for 2025, with a margin of ±5%. Eg: In 2024, India received 108% of LPA, which was categorized as ‘above normal’ rainfall.
LPA Reference and Classification: The LPA for the period 1971–2020 is 87 cm. Based on this, rainfall is classified as: Above Normal: 105–110% of LPA. Eg: If the rainfall is 105% of LPA, it falls within the ‘above normal’ range.
Improved Forecasting Methodology: Since 2021, IMD uses a multi-model ensemble system, combining global climate models with IMD’s own models, improving forecasting accuracy. Eg: Forecasts since the adoption of this system have shown improved accuracy, reducing error margins from previous years.
Why is rainfall distribution crucial for agriculture?
Impact on Crop Growth: Uneven or poor rainfall distribution can lead to crop stress or failure. Plants depend on consistent water supply during different growth stages. Eg: In 2024, excess rainfall in Maharashtra led to the destruction of onion crops, while deficient rainfall in Punjab delayed paddy sowing, driving up food costs.
Effect on Water Availability: Proper rainfall distribution ensures water availability throughout the growing season, which is essential for irrigation systems and groundwater recharge. Eg: If regions like Tamil Nadu receive excess rainfall while other areas like Uttar Pradesh experience drought, it can disrupt the balance, making water management challenging.
Geographical Variability and Crop Suitability: Different crops require specific rainfall amounts at different times, so spatial distribution of rainfall is essential for crop selection and yield maximization. Eg: In 2023, Telangana and Puducherry received excess rainfall, benefiting crops like rice, but Bihar faced a below-normal monsoon, impacting food grain production.
When did IMD improve its forecasting model, and what changed?
Improvement Began in 2021: IMD improved its forecasting model by adopting a multi-model ensemble dynamical system in 2021. Eg: Prior to 2021, IMD primarily relied on statistical models, but the new system incorporates global climate models along with IMD’s own models for better accuracy.
Enhanced Accuracy with New Models: The introduction of the multi-model ensemble system improved forecast reliability, reducing errors in predictions. Eg: Forecasts post-2021 showed a significant improvement, with accurate predictions of rainfall in regions like Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu during the 2024 monsoon.
Reduction in Error Margins: The new approach resulted in reduced error margins, making the first forecasts closer to actual rainfall patterns. Eg: IMD’s first forecast for the 2024 monsoon had a relatively smaller error margin, improving the predictability of rainfall distribution across India compared to previous years.
How do El Niño, La Niña, and IOD affect the monsoon?
Weather Phenomenon
Effect on Monsoon
Example
El Niño
Weakens the monsoon due to warmer sea surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean. This leads to reduced rainfall.
Eg: 2014, El Niño conditions led to below-normal rainfall, causing droughts and poor crop production in India.
La Niña
Strengthens the monsoon due to cooler sea surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean, which can lead to excessive rainfall in some areas.
Eg: 2017, La Niña conditions contributed to above-normal rainfall, causing floods in some regions like Assam.
Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)
Positive IOD can enhance rainfall, while a negative IOD can lead to drought conditions, especially if combined with El Niño.
Eg: 2019, a positive IOD helped in normal rainfall despite El Niño, while 2020 had a negative IOD, exacerbating the impact of weak monsoon rainfall.
Which regions saw abnormal rainfall in 2023, and what was the impact?
North and Northwest India: Excessive Rainfall: Heavy rainfall led to flash floods, landslides, and infrastructure damage. Eg: In Himachal Pradesh, intense rainfall triggered landslides and flash floods, resulting in at least 72 deaths and significant infrastructure damage.
Northeast India: Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs): Sudden release of water from glacial lakes caused severe flooding, destruction of infrastructure, and loss of life. Eg: In Sikkim, a GLOF resulted in the deaths of at least 31 people, destruction of over 270 houses, and damage to 11 bridges.
Southern Peninsula: Deficient Rainfall: Reduced water availability affected agriculture, leading to crop stress and delayed sowing. Eg: In Tamil Nadu, deficient rainfall impacted the sowing of paddy, leading to concerns over food production.
Way forward:
Enhance Climate Resilience: Promote water management, drought-resistant crops, and crop diversification to mitigate impacts of uneven rainfall.
Improve Early Warning Systems: Strengthen forecasting and disaster preparedness to ensure timely responses to extreme weather events.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] What are the causes of persistent high food inflation in India? Comment on the effectiveness of the monetary policy of the RBI to control this type of inflation.
Linakge: If the IMD’s prediction is accurate, a good monsoon could mitigate one of the key drivers of food inflation – erratic rainfall and lower agricultural output. This question asks about the causes of high food inflation; a good monsoon would work against these causes.
N4S: This article explores how religious gatherings like the Maha Kumbh impact river pollution and why cleanup efforts often fall short. UPSC frequently asks questions on environmental pollution and mitigation (PYQ 2024, 2015), requiring aspirants to analyze causes, government measures, and long-term solutions. Many aspirants falter by giving generic answers or missing real-world case studies. This article helps bridge that gap with specific incidents (e.g., 2017 Ganga pollution, 2024 Yamuna coliform crisis), policy failures (e.g., underperforming STPs despite Namami Gange), and a forward-thinking approach (AI-based water monitoring, zero-liquid discharge for industries). One special feature of this article is its direct use of government data and judicial rulings (e.g., NGT’s 2024 order for real-time water monitoring). It equips aspirants to move beyond rote memorization and develop structured, analytical answers—exactly what UPSC demands.
PYQ Anchoring
Industrial pollution of river water is a significant environmental issue in India. Discuss the various mitigation measures to deal with this problem and also the government’s initiatives in this regard. [GS 3, 2024]
The Namami Gange and National mission for clean Ganga (NMCG) programmes and causes of mixed results from the previous schemes. What quantum leaps can help preserve the river Ganga better than incremental inputs? [GS 3,2015]
Microthemes: Environmental Pollution and Mitigation
“Take a dip in the Ganga, and your sins will be washed away.”– That’s the belief that brings millions of devotees to the Maha Kumbh Mela, the world’s largest religious gathering. But while the faithful seek spiritual purification, the river itself ends up more polluted than ever.
In the last Maha Kumbh, a report by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) found that the water at several locations in Prayagraj failed to meet even basic bathing standards. The culprit? Sky-high levels of fecal coliform bacteria, a clear sign of untreated sewage mixing into the river. And this isn’t a one-time problem—it happens every single time.
So, why does this keep happening? Have we learned anything from past disasters in India ? And more importantly, what can we do to fix it before the next Maha Kumbh?
About Faecal coliform contamination
Fecal coliform contamination basically means that traces of human or animal poop have mixed with the water. This happens when untreated sewage, waste from livestock, or even runoff from open defecation ends up in rivers or lakes.
Now, why is this a big deal? Because fecal coliform bacteria (like E. coli) are a warning sign that the water is carrying germs that can make people sick. If you bathe or drink this water, you could get diarrhea, stomach infections, skin rashes, or even more serious diseases like typhoid or hepatitis.
During events like the Maha Kumbh, where millions of people gather and take holy dips in the Ganga, the situation gets worse. More people means more waste, and if the sewage system can’t handle it, the river gets contaminated quickly.
Past incidents in India
ndia has been struggling with severe coliform contamination in its rivers, especially in major ones like the Ganga and Yamuna. Despite big cleanup drives and government programs, the problem refuses to go away. The main culprits? Untreated sewage, industrial waste, and weak enforcement of pollution laws.
Here’s a look at some of the worst-affected rivers, what’s been done to fix them, and why these efforts haven’t made a lasting impact.
Incident & Year
Steps Taken
Effectiveness & Challenges
Ganga River (2017) – High coliform levels at Sangam & Kanpur
Namami Gange Program: Strengthened sewage treatment infrastructure, set up STPs, and developed riverfronts.
Partial success – Some STPs improved local water quality, but untreated sewage discharge continued due to poor enforcement and inadequate sewage networks.
Yamuna River (2023) – Record fecal coliform levels at Asgarpur, Delhi exit point
Yamuna Action Plan (YAP-III): Treated 318 MLD of sewage and improved wastewater management.
Limited impact – Industrial discharge and stormwater drains continued polluting the river. Many STPs operated below capacity or failed due to maintenance issues.
Ganga River (2023) – Bihar stations reported 92,000 MPN/100ml fecal coliform levels
Ganga Jal Aapurti Yojana: Increased clean water supply and diverted contaminated water for treatment.
Little impact – Contamination persisted due to inadequate sewage disposal and poor monitoring of industrial waste dumping.
Yamuna River (2024) – 4.9 million MPN/100ml coliform in Delhi
Delhi Govt. Sewerage Revamp: Increased sewage treatment funding, sealed illegal drains, and introduced real-time water monitoring.
Marginal improvement – Illegal dumping and untreated sewage remained a major issue, keeping coliform levels high.
Post-Kumbh Events (Multiple years) – Large-scale contamination during mass gatherings
Temporary measures: Set up temporary STPs, released extra water from dams, and deployed pollution control teams.
Short-lived success – Water quality improved temporarily but deteriorated once the events ended due to continuous sewage inflow.
India’s Regulatory Framework to handle such mass gatherings// prelims
When millions of devotees gather at the banks of the Ganga for an event like the Maha Kumbh, ensuring clean and safe water becomes a massive challenge. To tackle this, different policies and measures come into play—from judicial rulings and government regulations to on-ground administrative actions. The following efforts work together to maintain water quality during such large-scale events :
Category
Steps taken
Judicial Directives
1. In December 2024, NGT ordered the UP government and CPCB to prevent untreated sewage and solid waste discharge into the Ganga and Yamuna during the 2025 Maha Kumbh. 2. NGT mandated real-time water quality monitoring, with results displayed publicly. 3. Tribunal emphasized maintaining bathing and drinking water quality during the event.
Regulatory Frameworks
1. CPCB establishes water quality guidelines, setting limits for pollutants like BOD and fecal coliform. 2. CPCB works with state pollution control boards to monitor adherence to these guidelines. 3. Special monitoring mechanisms are activated during mass gatherings like Maha Kumbh to prevent health risks.
Administrative Measures
Infrastructure Development: 1. 4,000-hectare tent city built for pilgrims. 2. 150,000 tents installed. 3. Equal number of portable toilets set up.
Waste Management: 1. £720 million allocated for Maha Kumbh, a part of which was for waste disposal. 2. Dedicated solid waste management systems deployed. 3. Temporary treatment plants installed for sewage management.
Monitoring & Enforcement: 1. UPPCB and CPCB tasked with monitoring water quality during the festival. 2. Water samples collected and analyzed at least twice a week. 3. Reports on water pollution publicly released to ensure transparency.
Reasons for failure of policies
Despite stringent policies, water pollution during the Maha Kumbh continues to be a major issue. The 6 major reasons for such a situation is :
Why River Clean-Up Efforts Fail?
Reason for Failure
What Happens?
Examples & Sources
Overwhelming Crowd Size
Too many people (sometimes over 100 million) overload toilets and sewage plants, leading to waste spilling into the river.
– In 2019, 122,500 portable toilets were set up, but poor maintenance led to open defecation. – STPs couldn’t handle the load, so untreated sewage flowed into the Ganga.
Weak Law Enforcement
Industries and households keep dumping waste into the river because penalties are weak and monitoring is poor.
– In 2019, UPPCB found 50+ illegal drains still polluting the Ganga. – Tanneries in Kanpur kept releasing waste despite NGT’s orders.
Lack of Coordination Among Agencies
Too many government bodies (CPCB, NGT, UPPCB, municipalities) work separately instead of together, delaying action.
– In 2013, mismanagement delayed cleanup efforts before Maha Kumbh. – In 2019, Prayagraj’s civic body blamed funding delays for waste mismanagement.
Failure of Sewage Treatment Infrastructure
Many sewage plants don’t work properly or aren’t used enough, allowing untreated waste to flow into the river.
– In 2019, some STPs in Prayagraj ran at only 60% efficiency. – NMCG reported that untreated sewage was still entering the river.
Religious and Cultural Practices
People throw offerings, ashes, and flowers into the river, thinking it’s self-purifying, but this worsens pollution.
– Large amounts of floral waste and ashes were found in the river after Maha Kumbh 2019. – Studies show rituals increase organic pollution.
Political and Administrative Apathy
Leaders focus on temporary fixes during big events instead of long-term river restoration.
– In 2019, ₹4,200 crore was spent on Maha Kumbh, but long-term Ganga clean-up got little funding. – Post-event clean-ups helped briefly, but pollution levels bounced back within weeks.
These failures indicate that while policies exist, their execution remains weak. Without long-term planning, stricter enforcement, and better infrastructure, water quality issues will persist in future Maha Kumbh gatherings.
Way Forward
Stronger Wastewater Treatment Infrastructure
Invest in permanent, high-capacity sewage treatment plants (STPs) in cities hosting the Maha Kumbh.
Upgrade old STPs to handle peak loads during mass gatherings.
Strict Industrial Regulation and Waste Management
Implement zero-liquid discharge policies for industries near rivers.
Enforce real-time effluent monitoring with strict penalties for violations.
Eco-Friendly Event Planning
Mandate biodegradable materials for all event-related activities.
Increase green zones and buffer areas along the riverbanks to prevent direct pollution.
Technology-Driven Monitoring
Use AI-based sensors and satellite tracking for real-time water quality assessment.
Set up a public dashboard displaying water pollution levels for transparency.
Year-Round River Conservation Plans
Ensure consistent river cleaning projects before, during, and after the event.
Integrate the Kumbh Mela planning with long-term river rejuvenation programs like Namami Gange.
Community Involvement & Behavioral Change
Implement eco-volunteer programs to educate pilgrims on pollution control.
Offer rewards/incentives for pilgrims who follow sustainable waste disposal practices.
By addressing these issues with a mix of policy, technology, and public participation, future Maha Kumbh events can be spiritually enriching without harming the environment.
#BACK2BASICS: MEASURING RIVER POLLUTION
River pollution is measured using a set of scientific parameters, primarily governed by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC). These parameters help determine whether the water is safe for drinking, bathing, or aquatic life.
Key Parameters to Measure River Pollution
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
BOD measures the amount of oxygen required by microorganisms to break down organic matter in water.
Safe Level: Below 3 mg/L is considered good; anything above 6 mg/L is highly polluted.
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
DO indicates the oxygen available for aquatic life. Low DO means the river is struggling with pollution.
Safe Level: Above 5 mg/L is required for aquatic life. Below 3 mg/L is critical.
Fecal Coliform Bacteria
These bacteria indicate contamination by human or animal waste.
Safe Level: Below 500 MPN (Most Probable Number) per 100 mL for bathing; above 2500 MPN means severe pollution.
pH Levels
pH measures the acidity or alkalinity of water.
Safe Level: Between 6.5 and 8.5 for healthy water quality.
Total Suspended Solids (TSS)
Indicates sediment and particulate matter that make water turbid and impact aquatic life.
Safe Level: Less than 100 mg/L for general river health.
Who Monitors and Manages River Pollution?
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB): Sets national guidelines and monitors river water quality through its Real-Time Water Quality Monitoring Stations (RTWQMS).
State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs): Responsible for enforcing water pollution norms at the state level.
National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG): Focuses on rejuvenating the Ganga under the Namami Gange Programme.
How is Data Collected?
Water samples are taken from monitoring stations set up across major rivers.
Laboratory analysis is done for parameters like BOD, DO, and fecal coliform.
Some locations have real-time sensors that continuously update pollution levels.
Despite these regulations, pollution spikes—especially during events like the Maha Kumbh—show that monitoring alone isn’t enough. Strict enforcement and better waste management systems are the real need of the hour.
PRACTICE QUESTION
The Maha Kumbh Mela is one of the largest religious gatherings in the world, but its environmental impact, particularly on river pollution, remains a concern. Assess whether India is learning from past mistakes in managing the environmental aspects of this event.
DEMAND OF THE QUESTION
The question demands an assessment of the environmental impact of the Maha Kumbh Mela, specifically focusing on river pollution, and evaluates whether lessons from past mistakes are being learned and applied in its management.
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